Redwood National and State Parks

Modern day Native American nations such as the Yurok, Tolowa, Karok, Chilula, and Wiyot have historical ties to the region.[4] Historian David Stannard accounts for more than thirty native nations living for millennia in northwestern California, one of the world's most diverse regions.[5] Scholar Gail L. Jenner estimates that "at least fifteen" tribes inhabited the area we now assign to the park,[6] and some groups still live within park boundaries today.

The Yurok, Chilula, and Tolowa were the most connected to the places we now call parks.[7] Based on an 1852 census, anthropologist Alfred Kroeber estimated that the Yurok population in that year was around 2,500. Historian Ed Bearss described the Yurok as the most populous in the area, estimating that there were around 55 villages.[8] Until the 1860s, the Chilula lived in the middle region of the Redwood Creek valley in close company with the redwood trees.[9] They primarily settled along Redwood Creek between the coast and Minor Creek, California, and when food was abundant they would range into and camp in the Bald Hills. Part of the Yurok reservation and two Chilula village sites (Howunakut and Noieding) are located within the contemporary boundaries of the parks.[10] The Tolowa considered their origin to be near the mouth of the Smith River,[11] and they mainly settled along it, though their territory ranged from near the Oregon border to just above the Klamath River.[12] They inhabited lands that are now part of Jedediah Smith State Park, an area which has been inhabited for about 8,500 years.[11]

This reconstructed Yurok plankhouse is made of redwood boards.

The tribes harvested coast redwoods and processed them into planks, using them as building material for boats, houses, and small villages.[13] To construct buildings, the planks would be erected side by side in a narrow trench, with the upper portions bound with leather strapping and held by notches cut into the supporting roof beams. Redwood boards were used to form a shallow sloping roof.[14]

Redwoods were not just a useful resource for indigenous groups. Jenner notes that "their lives were – and are – built on more than just wood, although the redwood was the source of much of their material culture; their lives were enmeshed in the very character and fabric of the trees." Minnie Reeves, a Chilula tribal elder and religious leader, said in 1976 that the Chilula are "people from within the redwood tree".[15] Reeves elaborates that the trees are a gift from the creator as a demonstration of love: "Destroy these trees and you destroy the Creator's love. And if you destroy that which the Creator loves so much, you will eventually destroy mankind."[16] To the Yurok, the trees are sacred living beings that "stand as 'guardians' over sacred places". Indigenous people regard traditional houses made of redwood trees as "living beings" too, since, according to Bearss, "the redwood that formed its planks was itself the body of one of the Spirit Beings", which were considered, in his words, to be a "divine race who existed before humans in the redwood region and who taught people the proper way to live there".[15]

Prior to Jedediah Smith in 1828, no other explorer of European descent is known to have explored the interior of the Northern California coastal region. Smith and nineteen companions left San Jose, California, and explored what are now called the Trinity, Smith, and Klamath rivers, passing through coastal redwood forests and trading with Native American groups. They reached the coast near Requa, parts of which are within the parks' boundaries.[17]

The California Gold Rush of 1848 brought hundreds of thousands of Europeans and Americans to California,[18] and the discovery of gold along the Trinity River in 1850 brought many of them to the region of the parks. This quickly led to conflicts wherein native peoples were displaced, raped, enslaved, and massacred.[19] By 1895, only one third of the Yurok in one group of villages remained; by 1919, virtually all members of the Chilula tribe had either died or been assimilated into other tribes.[20] The Tolowa—whose numbers Bearss estimates at "well under 1,000" by the 1850s—had a population of about 120 in 1910,[12] having been nearly extinguished in massacres by settlers between 1853 and 1855.[21]

The miners logged redwoods for building; when this minor gold rush ended, some of them turned again to logging, cutting down the giant redwood trees.[22]

The coast redwood is the tallest tree species on Earth.

Initially, over 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km²) of the California and southwestern coast of Oregon were old-growth redwood forest, but by 1910, extensive logging led conservationists and concerned citizens to begin seeking ways to preserve the remaining trees, which they saw being logged at an alarming rate.[22] In 1911, U.S. Representative John E. Raker, of California, became the first politician to introduce legislation for the creation of a redwood national park. However, no further action was taken by Congress at that time.

Preservation of the redwood stands in California is considered one of the most substantial conservation contributions of the Boone and Crockett Club. The Save the Redwoods League was founded in 1918 by Boone and Crockett Club members Madison Grant, John C. Merriam, Henry Fairfield Osborn, and future member, Frederick Russell Burnham. The initial purchases of land were made by club member Stephen Mather and William Kent. In 1921, Boone and Crockett Club member John C. Phillips donated $32,000 to purchase land and create the Raynal Bolling Memorial Grove in the Humboldt Redwoods State Park.[23] This was timely as U.S. Route 101, which would soon provide nearly unfettered access to the trees, was under construction. Using matching funds provided initially by the County of Humboldt and later by the State of California, the Save the Redwoods League managed to protect areas of concentrated or multiple redwood groves and a few entire forests in the 1920s. As California created a state park system, beginning in 1927, three of the preserved redwood areas became Prairie Creek Redwoods, Del Norte Coast Redwoods, and Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Parks. A fourth became Humboldt Redwoods State Park, by far the largest of the individual Redwoods State Parks, but not in the Redwood National and State Parks system. Because of the high demand for lumber during World War II and the construction boom that followed in the 1950s, the creation of a national park was delayed. Efforts by the Save the Redwoods League, the Sierra Club, and the National Geographic Society to create a national park began in the early 1960s.[24] After intense lobbying of Congress, the bill creating Redwood National Park was signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 2, 1968.

A map of Redwood National and State Parks (2020)

The Save the Redwoods League and other entities purchased over 100,000 acres (400 km²), which were added to existing state parks. Amidst both local support of environmentalists and opposition from local loggers and logging companies, 48,000 acres (190 km²) were added to Redwood National Park in a major expansion in 1978.[24] However, only a fifth of that land was old-growth forest, the rest having been logged. This expansion protected the watershed along Redwood Creek from being adversely affected by logging operations outside the park. The federal and state parks were administratively combined in 1994.[25]

Expansion of the national park was controversial because of the impact on the logging community and because most of the parkland was already sustainably managed by the private timber industry with the old-growth within the expanded park already protected.[26] It remains the largest purchase of private land by the federal government in history as well as the largest eminent domain action. In 1977, a 25-truck convoy featuring logging equipment crossed the country to deliver President Jimmy Carter a 9-ton peanut carved from old-growth redwood. The president refused the gift, and the Orick Peanut was returned to Orick, a logging town adjacent to the newly expanded park that saw substantial economic decline in the following decades.[27]

The United Nations designated the Redwood National and State Parks a World Heritage Site on September 5, 1980. The evaluation committee noted 50 prehistoric archaeological sites, spanning 4,500 years. It also cited ongoing research in the park by Humboldt State University researchers, among others.[28]

Sequoia sempervirens

Coast redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) are the tallest trees on Earth. The tallest specimen alive is 380 feet (120 m)[36] and the species has a theoretical maximum height of between 400 and 427 feet (122 and 130 m).[37] Not as long-lived as its relative Sequoia gigantea,[38] mature coast redwoods live an average of 500–700 years and a few are documented to be 2,000 years old.[39] Coast redwood is a shade tolerant conifer.[40] It has no taproot, and its roots spread into a wide lateral root system.[41] Due to a thick protective bark and high tannin content, it is highly resistant to disease.[39] As of 1990 a stand in Humboldt Redwoods State Park had the greatest biomass ever recorded.[41] Redwood trees develop enormous limbs that accumulate deep organic soils and can support tree-sized trunks growing on them.[42] Plants called epiphytes which normally grow on the forest floor grow in these soils.[43] Mats of epiphytic ferns well above ground are home to invertebrates, mollusks, earthworms, and salamanders.[44] During drought seasons, some treetops die back, but the trees do not die outright. Instead, redwoods developed lignotubers to regrow new trunks from other limbs.[45] These secondary trunks, called reiterations, also develop root systems in the accumulated soils at their bases.[45] This helps transport water to the highest reaches of the trees.[45] Redwoods prefer sheltered slopes, and thrive on moist flat ground along rivers below 1,000 feet (300 m) in elevation.[40] Coastal fog provides about 40 percent of their annual water intake.[46]

Redwoods have existed along the coast of northern California for at least 20 million years and are related to tree species that existed 160 million years ago in the Jurassic era.[46] One of three living redwood species, the coast redwood is closely related to the giant sequoia of central California, and more distantly to the dawn redwood which is indigenous to the Sichuan–Hubei region of China.[47] The current range of coast redwood is a 450-mile (720 km) long and 5-to-35-mile (8 to 56 km) wide strip along the west coast of the United States from the northern California coast north to the southern Oregon Coast.[48] It is estimated that old-growth redwood forest once covered close to 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km²) of coastal northern California.[49] Almost half (45 percent) of the redwoods remaining in California are found in RNSP, and 96 percent of all old-growth redwoods have been logged. The parks protect 38,982 acres (157.75 km²) of old-growth forest almost equally divided between federal and state management.[39] The International Union for Conservation of Nature named the coastal redwood an endangered species in 2011.[50]

As of September 2006, the tallest tree in the park was Hyperion at 380 feet (120 m), followed by Helios at 377 feet (115 m), and Icarus at 371 feet (113 m).[36] For many years thought to be the tallest, one specimen named simply "Tall Tree" within the RNSP in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park was measured at 367.8 feet (112.1 m). "So many people have stood on the base of the tree that the ground is hard packed," said Professor Stephen C. Sillett of Humboldt State in the 1990s.[51] The top 10 feet (3.0 m) of the tree died in the 1970s, and fell off in the 1990s.[51] In 2022 after documenting damage caused by visitors to the tallest living tree, NPS announced a penalty for those who approach it of up to a $5,000 fine and six months in jail,[36] and shows visitors instead to views of other trees—views that are better than any possible view of Hyperion.[52]

Fern Canyon in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park

Coast redwood tends to dominate in places it likes but often can be found together with also-fast-growing coast Douglas-fir trees. Closer to the ocean, red alder grow in place of the salt-water intolerant redwood.[53] The tallest known Sitka spruce grows in the parks.[54] Sitka spruce are plentiful along the coast, better adapted to salty air than other species. Other associated trees are the tanoak, Pacific madrone, bigleaf maple, and California laurel.[55]

Huckleberry and snowberry are part of the forest understory.[55] The California rhododendron and azalea are flowering shrubs common in the parks.[55] Plants such as the sword fern and redwood sorrel are prolific.[55]

In Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, Fern Canyon is a well-known ravine 50 feet (15 m) deep,[53] with walls completely covered in ferns—California maidenhair, deer fern, California polypody, licorice fern, and western swordfern.[56] The ancestors of some of these ferns reach back 325 million years.[57]

Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is a threatened species known to exist in the parks.

The ecosystems of the RNSP preserve a number of rare animal species. Numerous ecosystems exist, with seacoast, river, prairie, and densely forested zones all within the park. Over 40 species of mammals have been documented, including the black bear, coyote, cougar, bobcat, beaver, river otter, and black-tailed deer. Roosevelt elk are the most readily observed of the large mammals in the park.[58] Successful herds, brought back from the verge of extinction in the region, are now common in park areas.[58] Many smaller mammals live in the high forest canopy. Different species of bats, such as the big brown bat, and other smaller mammals including the red squirrel and northern flying squirrel spend most of their lives well above the forest floor.[59]

About half of RNSP's 28 species that are federally recognized as endangered, threatened, or candidates can be seen in the parks.[3] The bald eagle, which usually nests near a water source, is listed as a state of California endangered species.[60] The Chinook salmon, northern spotted owl, and Steller's sea lion are a few of the other animal species that are threatened.[3][61] The tidewater goby is a federally listed endangered species that lives near the Pacific coastline that were extirpated from the parks in 1968 when shoreline alterations affected the water's salinity. The candlefish soon followed in the 1970s.[62] Sea otters were extirpated in the parks at the turn of the 20th century but river otters remain.[63] Also endangered, the marbled murrelet can nest high on redwood branches.[58]

Along the coastline, California sea lions, Steller sea lions and harbor seals live near the shore and on seastacks, rocky outcroppings forming small islands just off the coast.[63] Dolphins and Pacific gray whales are occasionally seen offshore.[63] Brown pelicans and three species of cormorants are mainly found on cliffs along the coast and on seastacks, while sandpipers and three species of gulls inhabit the seacoast and inland areas.[64] Inland, freshwater-dependent birds such as the common merganser, osprey, red-tailed hawk, herons, and jays are a few of the bird species that have been documented.[64] Approximately 280 bird species, or about one third of those found in the US, have been documented within park boundaries.[64]

Reptiles like four species of sea turtle can be found offshore and sometimes on beaches.[65] Amphibians can also be found in the parks, which the gopher snake,[66] tailed frog,[67] clouded salamander,[68] and three species of newt[69] call home. Well-known detritivores, the banana slug and the yellow-spotted millipede, inhabit the parks.[70]

NPS provides safety tips for visitors who encounter wildlife such as elk, black bears, and mountain lions, as well as poison oak and ticks.[71]

Currently, over 200 exotic species live in the RNSP. Of these, 30 have been identified as invasive species, and 10 of the 30 are considered threats to local species and ecosystems.[72] Exotic species currently account for about a quarter of the total flora in the parks.[72] Only about one percent of plant growth in old-growth areas are of exotic species, while areas such as the Bald Hills prairies have a relative exotic cover of 50 to 75 percent.[72] Spotted knapweed and poison hemlock were both under consideration in 2015 for addition to a high priority watch list maintained by the park system.[73]

Coastline area

The parks are located in the most seismically active area in the country.[74] Frequent minor earthquakes in the park and offshore under the Pacific Ocean have resulted in shifting river channels, landslides, and erosion of seaside cliffs.[74] The North American, Pacific, and Gorda Plates are tectonic plates that all meet at the Mendocino Triple Junction, only 100 miles (160 km) southwest of the parks.[74] During the 1990s, more than nine magnitude 6.0 earthquakes occurred along this fault zone resulting in one death and major financial loss, and there is always potential for a major earthquake.[75] The area is the most tsunami-prone in the continental U.S., and visitors to the seacoast are told to seek higher ground immediately after any significant earthquake.[71] The park's altitude is below sea level up to 837 meters (2,746 ft) at Rodgers Peak.[28]

Both coastline and the mountains of the California Coast Ranges can be found within park boundaries.[28] The majority of the rocks in the parks are part of the Franciscan Assemblage,[28] uplifted from the ocean floor millions of years ago. These sedimentary rocks are primarily sandstone, siltstone, shale, and chert, with lesser amounts of metamorphic rocks such as greenstone.[28] Redwood Creek follows the Grogan Fault; along the west bank of the creek, schist and other metamorphic rocks can be found, while sedimentary rocks of the Franciscan Assemblage are located on the east bank.[28]

Fog is persistent during the summer

The Redwood National and State Parks have an oceanic temperate rainforest climate, with cool-summer Mediterranean characteristics.[78] The nearby Pacific Ocean has major effects on the climate in the parks.[79] Temperatures near the coast mostly remain between 40 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit (4–15 °C) all year.[79] Redwoods tend to grow in this area of steadily temperate climate, though most grow at least a mile or two (1.5–3 km) from the coast to avoid the saltier air, and they never grow more than 50 miles (80 km) from it. In this humid coastal zone, the trees receive moisture from both heavy winter rains and persistent summer fog.[80] The presence and consistency of the summer fog is actually more important to overall health of the trees than the precipitation. This fact is born out in annual precipitation totals, which range between 25 and 122 inches (64 and 310 cm) annually, with healthy redwood forests throughout the areas of less precipitation because excessive needs for water are mitigated by the ever-present summer fog and the cooler temperatures it ensures. Snow is uncommon even on peaks above 1,500 feet (460 m),[81] but light snow mixed with rain is common during the winter months.

Parts of the parks are threatened by climate change. Increasing average temperatures have led to reduced water quality, affecting the fish and other fauna, and rising sea levels threaten to damage park structures near the coast. The redwoods benefit from higher carbon levels and are resilient against temperature changes, though the range in which they live is likely to shift along with weather patterns.[82]

Prescribed controlled fires are part of the fire management plan, and they help to eliminate exotic species of plants and allow a more fertile and natural ecosystem. Fire is also used to protect prairie grasslands and to keep out forest encroachment, ensuring sufficient rangeland for elk and deer. The oak forest regions also benefit from controlled burns, as Douglas fir would otherwise eventually take over and decrease biodiversity. The use of fire in old-growth redwood zones reduces dead and decaying material, and lessens the mortality of larger redwoods by eliminating competing vegetation.[83] The park's fire management plan calls for monitoring all fires, weather patterns and the fuel load (dead and decaying plant material). The fuel load level is controlled by either removing material or using controlled burns.[84]

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