Shah Waliullah Dehlawi

Shah Waliullah defined Sunni Islam in broad terms, rather than confining it to a specific school of theology. According to Shah, Ahlul Sunna wal Jam'ah are those who followed the Qur'an and Sunnah on the way of the Sahaba (companions) and Tabi'īn, by holding "fast to the beliefs of the pious ancestors (al-salaf)." He considered the four legal schools, as well as both the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y (Atharī and Hanafi) schools of theology to be part of Sunnism. According to Shah, the differences between them are only over secondary issues of valid Ikhtilaf; while on fundamental issues they remain united.[17][18]

He believed that leaders should rule in accordance with the precepts of Islam and the teachings of Islam should be purified by teachers with ijtihad based on the basis on which the Quran and Hadith is founded on. He believed that there are certain bounderies that must be placed on Sufism and that the four main madhhabs were to be mixed into one system of law and moral codes.[19] He said:

"There are numerous benefits in it that are no secret to anyone. These are especially required in these days when people lack courage, when carnal passions have taken deep root in people's souls and whenever a person is obsessed only with his opinion."[20]

In his work Tahfimat al-Ilahiyya, Shah declared his conviction that unification of Hanafi and Shafi'i schools of law was essential for Indian Islamic revival.[21][22] This was to be achieved through the legal re-evaluation of the madh'habs in the light of Qur'an and Hadith. Whatever rules not aligning with the Scriptures were to be discarded. Shah specifically sought the reformation of Hanafi jurisprudence and made its legal rulings confirm to authentic hadiths collected by the early hadith scholars, thus implementing his vision of reducing legal differences between madhabs. Waliullah's re-evaluation efforts led him to declare that Shafi'i school was the closest to the Sunnah. Thus, most of his legal positions aligned with the views of Imam Al-Shafi'i.[23] Shah Waliullah sought the reconciliation of differences of Shafi'i and Hanafi schools of Fiqh as his duty. He was particularly concerned with the pervasive Hanafi fanaticism prevalent in his community, which he rebuked, and called for an inclusive synthesis of all of the schools of law.[24][25] He said:

"The entire Ummah, or rather those of them who are dependable, are unanimous about the fact that it is permissible to follow one of these four Madhahib that have been methodically systemized and recorded. This unanimity remains to this day."[20]

Shah Waliullah placed emphasis on a direct understanding of the Qur'an, maintaining that those students with sufficient knowledge must work with the text, rather than previous commentaries. He argued that Qurʾān is clear to any student with sufficient knowledge of Arabic, just like it was understandable to its first recipients and scholars, including those parts that are mutashābih (unclear). Shah believed that one should prefer the interpretation that is closest to the literal meaning (ẓāhir al-maʿnā) of the Qurʾān and the Sunnah which fits the Qur'anic context, without clinging to a particular school in exegesis, grammar, or theology.[26]

On the nature of Divine Attributes, Shah Waliullah rejected the Ash'ari view and adopted the position of the early Ahl al-Hadith school.[27][28][29] Criticising the extremists amongst the speculative theologians (Mutakallimoon) and defending the Ahl al-Hadith, Shah writes in Hujjatullah al- Balighah: "Those speculators behaved contemptuously towards the people of Hadith calling them corporealists and anthropomorphists saying that they sought refuge in the formula of 'without asking how ( bi-la kaif )... this contempt of theirs is unfounded and .. they err in their sayings both from the viewpoint of tradition and of reason and.. they err in slandering the leaders of the true religion."[29]

Even still, Shah Waliullah held to the position that ta'wil (interpretation) of the Divine Attributes is permissible, albeit within limits. He writes in the same chapter in Hujjatullah al- Balighah: "It is our right to interpret them (the anthropomorphic attributes) in senses more easy to comprehend and more suitable than what they said, for clarity’s sake, since holding these (specific) meanings is not stipulated, and the one investigating by means of intellectual proof is not forced to use them, and they are not preferable to others, nor do they have any exclusive merit."[30] In contrast to those speculators which he deemed to be in err, he said the following regarding the limits of interpretation and its speculative nature: "There is no ruling to the effect that God meant what we hold, nor is there a consensus that one should believe in them and acknowledge them; such a thing would be absurd."[30]

Shah had been a firm defender of the positions of Taqi ad-Din Ibn Taymiyya, the classical theologian who was a fierce critique of speculative theology and medieval clerical institutions. Shah would compose a treatise to defend Ibn Taymiyya, praising him as a great scholar of Sunni Islam.[10]

His dislike of the Marathas is expressed in one of his dreams that he narrated in “Fuyooz-ul Haramain” where he said "And I saw that the king of the infidels took over the land of the Muslims and looted their property. He enslaved their women and children and in the city of Ajmer he declared the rites of disbelief".[31]

In one of his letters available in manuscripts collection at Rampur, he asks Muslim rulers led by Ahmad Shah Bahadur to put a ban on public religious ceremonies by non-Muslims and to issue strict orders against certain ceremonies by the Shi'a: "Strict orders should be issued in all Islamic towns forbidding religious ceremonies publicly practiced by non-Muslims (such as the performance of Holi and ritual bathing in the Ganges). On the tenth of Muharram, Shi'a should not be allowed to go beyond the bounds of moderation, neither should they say or do things that are considered offensive by other Muslims (that is, recite tabarra, or curse the first three successors of the Prophet Muhammad) in the streets or bazars.[32]

Shah Waliullah strongly advocated against adopting non-Islamic customs, and argued for commitment to Arabic Islamic culture. Shah Waliullah believed that: “Muslims, no matter where they live, wherever they spend their youthful days, they should in any case be completely separated from the natives of that country in their culture, traditions and mannerisms. And wherever they are, they must be immersed in their Arabic splendor and Arabic trends”[31]. On adherence to Arab culture, he insists: “Beware! The rich intend to adopt the ways of strangers and non-Arabs and those who deviate from the right path, and tries to mix and be like them”.[31] In his own words, he sought to conform to the habits and customs of the early Arabs and Muhammad, and to "abstain from the customs of the Ajam and the Indians." The only logical hikmat-i-amali, or practical wisdom for Muslim rulers, was to strengthen community boundaries by conducting Jihad against opponents and promoting the cultural practises (adab) that differentiated that faithful from non-Muslims.[33]