Sino-Korean vocabulary

Sino-Korean vocabulary or Hanja-eo (Korean: 한자어; Hanja: 漢字語) refers to Korean words of Chinese origin. Sino-Korean vocabulary includes words borrowed directly from Chinese, as well as new Korean words created from Chinese characters, and words borrowed from Sino-Japanese vocabulary. Many of these terms were borrowed during the height of Chinese-language literature on Korean culture. Subsequently, many of these words have also been truncated or altered for the Korean language.

Estimates of the percentage of Sino-Korean ranges from as low as 30%[1] to as high as 70%.[2] According to the Standard Korean Language Dictionary published by the National Institute of Korean Language (NIKL), Sino-Korean represents approximately 57% of the Korean vocabulary.[3]

History

The use of Chinese and Chinese characters in Korea dates back to at least 194 BCE. While Sino-Korean words were widely used during the Three Kingdoms period, they became even more popular during the Silla period. During this time, male aristocrats changed their given names to Sino-Korean names. Additionally, the government changed all official titles and place names in the country to Sino-Korean.[4]

Sino-Korean words remained popular during the Goryeo and Joseon periods.[4] Ultimately, the majority of Sino-Korean words were introduced before 1945, including Sino-Japanese words themselves that were introduced to Korea during Japanese Occupation.[5] In the contemporary era, Sino-Korean vocabulary has continued to grow in South Korea, where the meanings of Chinese characters are used to produce new words in Korean that do not exist in Chinese. By contrast, North Korean policy has called for many Sino-Korean words to be replaced by native Korean terms.[6]

Usage

Sino-Korean words constitute a large portion of South Korean vocabulary, the remainder being native Korean words and loanwords from other languages, such as Japanese and English to a lesser extent. Sino-Korean words are typically used in formal or literary contexts,[5] and to express abstract or complex ideas.[7]

All Korean surnames and most Korean given names are Sino-Korean.[4] Additionally, Korean numerals can be expressed with Sino-Korean and native Korean words, though each set of numerals has different purposes.[7]

Sino-Korean words may be written either in the Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, or in Chinese characters, known as Hanja.[8]

Examples

Words borrowed from Chinese

Sino-Korean words borrowed directly from Chinese come mainly from Chinese classics, literature, and colloquial Chinese.[6]

Word	Korean (RR)	Hanja	Hanja meaning	Ref
parents	부모 (bumo)	父母	"father mother"	[9]
student	학생 (haksaeng)	學生	"study student"	[10]
sun	태양 (taeyang)	太陽	"great light"	[11]
question	질문 (jilmun)	質問	"background ask"	[12]

Words created in Korea using Chinese characters

These words below were created in Korea using Chinese characters. They are not used in China, Japan, nor Vietnam.

Definition	Korean	Revised Romanization	Hanja
false; rumor; canard	낭설	nangseol	浪說
marital compatibility; well-suited; well-matched	궁합	gunghap	宮合
common cold	감기	gamgi	感氣
deceptive; trickster	고단수	godansu	高段數
hardship; trouble; suffering	고생	gosaeng	苦生
notebook	공책	gongchaek	空冊
determiner (grammar); prenoun	관형사	gwanhyeongsa	冠形詞
prison; penitentiary	교도소	gyodoso	矯導所
assortment (of goods)	구색	gusaek	具色
a joke	농담	nongdam	弄談
unity; join; combine	단합	danhap	團合
reply; response; answer	답장	dapjang	答狀
fortune; lucky	다행	dahaeng	多幸
cod(fish)	대구	daegu	大口
mass transportation; public transit	대중교통	daejung-gyotong	大衆交通
site; land mass	대지	daeji	垈地
indebtedness	덕분	deokbun	德分
subcontract	도급	dogeup	都給
unmarried young man; bachelor; youngster	도령	doryeong	道令
flu; influenza	독감	dokgam	毒感
same age	동갑	donggap	同甲
sense of kinship	동질감	dongjilgam	同質感
beer	맥주	maekju	麥酒
pollock	명태	myeongtae	明太
(national) holiday	명절	myeongjeol	名節
business card containing name	명함	myeongham	名銜
carpenter	목수	moksu	木手
extinction; annihilation	몰사	molsa	沒死
massacre; slaughter; extermination	몰살	molsal	沒殺
hibiscus	무궁화	mugunghwa	無窮花
visit to sick person	문병	munbyeong	問病
questioning; interrogating	문초	muncho	問招
uneasy; uncomfortable; to be apologetic	미안	mian	未安
public harm	민폐	minpye	民弊
sitting cushion; sitting mat	방석	bangseok	方席
lottery ticket	복권	bokgwon	福券
real estate agency	복덕방	bokdeokbang	福德房
off-season; slow season	비수기	bisugi	非需期
ice rink	빙상장	bingsangjang	氷上場
cemetery; grave; tomb	산소	sanso	山所
fish (specifically prepared as food)	생선	saengseon	生鮮
stonemason	석수	seoksu	石手
present; gift	선물	seonmul	膳物
peak season; busy season	성수기	seongsugi	盛需期
(your) name	성함	seongham	姓銜
sexual harassment	성희롱	seonghuirong	性戲弄
duty; responsibility; task	소임	soim	所任
precious; valuable	소중	sojung	所重
trip; picnic; excursion	소풍	sopung	逍風
cheque	수표	supyo	手票
beginning of; start of; embark upon	시작	sijak	始作
earnestly request	신신당부	sinsindangbu	申申當付
child actor or actress	아역	ayeok	兒役
seize; distrainment; sequestration	압류	amnyu (apryu)	押留
bad term; grudge	앙숙	angsuk	怏宿
uproar; clamor; commotion	야단	yadan	惹端
socks	양말	yangmal	洋襪
heartlessness; mercilessness	야박	yabak	野薄
as expected; also	역시	yeoksi	亦是
yellow-green; light green	연두	yeondu	軟豆
alien; extraterrestrial	외계인	oegyein	外界人
native speaker	원어민	woneomin	原語民
exclave	월경지	wolgyeongji	越境地
beginning; commencing	위시	wisi	爲始
lean on; depend on; rely on	의지	uiji	依支
move; relocate	이사	isa	移徙
rice-planting machine	이앙기	ianggi	移秧機
behalf	자기편	jagipyeon	自己便
determination; decision; plan	작정	jakjeong	作定
gloves; mittens	장갑	janggap	掌匣 / 掌甲
lease; charter	전세	jeonse	專貰
procedure (for); process (of); steps; proceedings	절차	jeolcha	節次
lovers' talk	정담	jeongdam	情談
identity	정체성	jeongcheseong	正體性
bakery; bakeshop	제과점	jegwajeom	製菓店
gas station	주유소	juyuso	注油所
kettle	주전자	jujeonja	酒煎子
sorry; pardon; regrettable	죄송	joesong	罪悚
purse; wallet	지갑	jigap	紙匣
order; turn; table of contents	차례	charye	次例
bookstore	책방	chaekbang	冊房
window	창문	changmun	窓門
ceiling	천장	cheonjang	天障
wedding invitation	청첩장	cheongcheopjang	請牒狀
elementary school	초등학교	chodeung-hakgyo	初等學校
elementary school student	초등학생	chodeung-haksaeng	初等學生
spring fatigue	춘곤증	chungonjeung	春困症
release; launch	출시	chulsi	出市
stairs; stairway; staircase	층계	cheunggye	層階
friend	친구	chingu	親舊
spring of clock; clockwork	태엽	taeyeop	胎葉
consilience	통섭	tongseop	統攝
convenience store	편의점	pyeoneuijeom	便宜店
letter; epistle	편지	pyeonji	便紙
a visit; a trip; travelling	행차	haengcha	行次
brag; bluff; boast	허풍	heopung	虛風
cash	현찰	hyeonchal	現札
circumstances; conditions	형편	hyeongpyeon	形便
go crazy; be out of one's mind	환장	hwanjang	換腸
change of seasons; in-between seasons	환절기	hwanjeolgi	換節期

Words borrowed from Sino-Japanese

Sino-Korean words borrowed from Sino-Japanese are used only in Korean and Japanese, not in Chinese.[6]

Word	Hangul (RR)	Hanja	Hanja meaning[4]	Ref
airplane	비행기 (bihaenggi)	飛行機	"fly go machine"	[13]
movie	영화 (yeonghwa)	映畫	"shine picture"	[14]

Phonetic correspondences

Initial consonants

Correspondences of initial consonants
	Middle Chinese	Sino-Korean[15][16]
Labials	幫 p	p/pʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	滂 pʰ
	並 b
	明 m	m
Dentals	端 t	t/tʰ[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2]
	透 tʰ
	定 d
	泥 n	n
	來 l	l
Retroflex stops	知 ʈ	t/tʰ[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 3]
	徹 ʈʰ
	澄 ɖ
Dental sibilants	精 ts	tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	清 tsʰ
	從 dz
	心 s	s
	邪 z	s
Retroflex sibilants	莊 ʈʂ	tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	初 ʈʂʰ	tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	崇 ɖʐ	s/tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	生 ʂ	s
Palatals	章 tɕ	tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	昌 tɕʰ	tɕ/tɕʰ[lower-alpha 1]
	禪 dʑ	s
	書 ɕ
	船 ʑ
	日 ɲ	z > ∅
Velars	見 k	k/h
	溪 kʰ	k/h
	群 ɡ	k
	疑 ŋ	ŋ > ∅
Laryngeals	影 ʔ	ʔ > ∅
	曉 x	h
	匣 ɣ	h

Final consonants

The Middle Chinese final consonants were semivowels (or glides) /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/. Sino-Korean preserves all the distinctions between final nasals and stops. Although Old Korean had a /t/ coda, words with the Middle Chinese coda /t/ have /l/ in Sino-Korean, reflecting a northern variety of Late Middle Chinese in which final /t/ had weakened to /r/.[18][19]

Correspondences of final consonants
Middle Chinese	Sino-Korean[20]
-m	m
-n	n
-ng	ŋ
-p	p
-t	l
-k	k

References

Kim, Jin-su (2009-09-11). 우리말 70%가 한자말? 일제가 왜곡한 거라네 [Our language is 70% hanja? Japanese Empire distortion]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). Retrieved 2009-09-11. The dictionary mentioned is 우리말 큰 사전. Seoul: Hangul Hakhoe. 1992. OCLC 27072560.
허철 (June 2010). "Examination how many using compound of chinese character words and investigate the frequency of use by using analysis of Modern Korean words 1, 2". Journal of Chinese Characters Education in Korea. null (34): 221–244. doi:10.17963/ccek.2010..34.221. ISSN 1225-1321.
Choo, Miho; O'Grady, William (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: An Approach to Word Recognition and Comprehension. University of Hawaii Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0824818156.
Sohn, Ho-Min (2006). Korean Language in Culture And Society. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 44–55. ISBN 0824826949.
Choo, Miho (2008). Using Korean: A Guide to Contemporary Usage. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–92. ISBN 978-1139471398.
Lee, Peter H. (2003). A History of Korean Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–25. ISBN 1139440861.
Byon, Andrew Sangpil (2017). Modern Korean Grammar: A Practical Guide. Taylor & Francis. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-1351741293.
Choo, Miho; O'Grady, William (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: An Approach to Word Recognition and Comprehension. University of Hawaii Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0824818156.
"父母". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
"學生". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
"太陽". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
"質問". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
"飛行機". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
"映畫". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.
Miyake (2004), pp. 119–122.
Qian (2018), pp. 104.
Miyake (2004), p. 115.
Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 69.
Miyake (2004), p. 113.
Miyake (2004), pp. 113, 116.

In early prescriptive dictionaries, Middle Chinese aspirates always yield Sino-Korean aspirates, but in actual pronunciation aspiration is unpredictable.[17]
In Modern Sino-Korean, dentals [t]/[tʰ] preceding a palatal approximant [j] become palatalized as [tɕ]/[tɕʰ], respectively, e.g. 田: ttyen > cen, 定: ttyeng > ceng.
In Modern Sino-Korean, dentals [t]/[tʰ] preceding a palatal approximant [j] become palatalized as [tɕ]/[tɕʰ], respectively, e.g. 田: ttyen > cen, 定: ttyeng > ceng.

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[1] Kim, Jin-su (2009-09-11). 우리말 70%가 한자말? 일제가 왜곡한 거라네 [Our language is 70% hanja? Japanese Empire distortion]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). Retrieved 2009-09-11. The dictionary mentioned is 우리말 큰 사전. Seoul: Hangul Hakhoe. 1992. OCLC 27072560.

[2] 허철 (June 2010). "Examination how many using compound of chinese character words and investigate the frequency of use by using analysis of Modern Korean words 1, 2". Journal of Chinese Characters Education in Korea. null (34): 221–244. doi:10.17963/ccek.2010..34.221. ISSN 1225-1321.

[3] Choo, Miho; O'Grady, William (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: An Approach to Word Recognition and Comprehension. University of Hawaii Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0824818156.

[:0-4] Sohn, Ho-Min (2006). Korean Language in Culture And Society. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 44–55. ISBN 0824826949.

[:1-5] Choo, Miho (2008). Using Korean: A Guide to Contemporary Usage. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–92. ISBN 978-1139471398.

[:3-6] Lee, Peter H. (2003). A History of Korean Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–25. ISBN 1139440861.

[:2-7] Byon, Andrew Sangpil (2017). Modern Korean Grammar: A Practical Guide. Taylor & Francis. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-1351741293.

[8] Choo, Miho; O'Grady, William (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: An Approach to Word Recognition and Comprehension. University of Hawaii Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0824818156.

[9] "父母". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.

[10] "學生". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.

[11] "太陽". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.

[12] "質問". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.

[13] "飛行機". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.

[14] "映畫". Naver Hanja Dictionary (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-02-19.

[FOOTNOTEMiyake2004119–122-15] Miyake (2004), pp. 119–122.

[FOOTNOTEQian2018104-16] Qian (2018), pp. 104.

[FOOTNOTEMiyake2004115-17] Miyake (2004), p. 115.

[FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201169-21] Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 69.

[FOOTNOTEMiyake2004113-22] Miyake (2004), p. 113.

[FOOTNOTEMiyake2004113,_116-23] Miyake (2004), pp. 113, 116.

[SK-h-18] In early prescriptive dictionaries, Middle Chinese aspirates always yield Sino-Korean aspirates, but in actual pronunciation aspiration is unpredictable.[17]

[19] In Modern Sino-Korean, dentals [t]/[tʰ] preceding a palatal approximant [j] become palatalized as [tɕ]/[tɕʰ], respectively, e.g. 田: ttyen > cen, 定: ttyeng > ceng.

[20] In Modern Sino-Korean, dentals [t]/[tʰ] preceding a palatal approximant [j] become palatalized as [tɕ]/[tɕʰ], respectively, e.g. 田: ttyen > cen, 定: ttyeng > ceng.