Solar power in Germany

Solar power accounted for an estimated 8.2 per cent of electricity in Germany in 2019, which was almost exclusively from photovoltaics (PV).[3][4][5] About 1.5 million photovoltaic systems were installed around the country in 2014, ranging from small rooftop systems, to medium commercial and large utility-scale solar parks.[3]: 5  Germany's largest solar farms are located in Meuro, Neuhardenberg, and Templin with capacities over 100 MW.

Solar power Germany 2016 fact sheet: electricity generation, development, investments, capacity, employment and the public opinion.[1]
German electricity by source in 2022
  •   Wind: 123.44 TW⋅h (25.2%)
  •   Brown coal: 106.64 TW⋅h (21.8%)
  •   Solar: 57.61 TW⋅h (11.8%)
  •   Hard coal: 55.58 TW⋅h (11.4%)
  •   Natural gas: 46.43 TW⋅h (9.5%)
  •   Biomass: 42.18 TW⋅h (8.6%)
  •   Nuclear: 32.79 TW⋅h (6.7%)
  •   Hydro: 15.05 TW⋅h (3.1%)
  •   Oil: 0.68 TW⋅h (0.1%)
  •   Other: 8.66 TW⋅h (1.8%)
Net generated electricity in 2022[2]

Germany has been among the world's top PV installer for several years, with total installed capacity amounting to 67.3 gigawatts (GW) by the end of 2022.[6] Germany's 807 watts of solar PV per capita (2022) is the third highest in the world, behind only Australia and the Netherlands.[7]

It's estimated that by 2017 over 70% of the country's jobs in the solar industry have been lost in the solar sector in recent years.[1] Proponents from the PV industry blame the lack of governmental commitment, while others point out the financial burden associated with the fast-paced roll-out of photovoltaics, rendering the transition to renewable energies unsustainable in their view.[8]

Germany's official governmental goal is to continuously increase renewables' contribution to the country's overall electricity consumption. Long-term targets are 80% renewable electricity by 2030 and full decarbonization before 2040.[9][10]

The country is increasingly producing more electricity at specific times with high solar irradiation than it needs, driving down spot-market prices[11] and exporting its surplus of electricity to its neighbouring countries, with a record exported surplus of 34 TWh in 2014.[12] A decline in spot-prices may however raise the electricity prices for retail customers, as the spread of the guaranteed feed-in tariff and spot-price increases as well.[3]: 17  As the combined share of fluctuating wind and solar is approaching 17 per cent on the national electricity mix, other issues are becoming more pressing and others more feasible. These include adapting the electrical grid, constructing new grid-storage capacity, dismantling and altering fossil and nuclear power plants—brown coal and nuclear power are the country's cheapest suppliers of electricity, according to today's calculations—and to construct a new generation of combined heat and power plants.[3]: 7 

Concentrated solar power (CSP), a solar power technology that does not use photovoltaics, has virtually no significance for Germany, as this technology demands much higher solar insolation. There is, however, a 1.5 MW experimental CSP-plant used for on-site engineering purposes rather than for commercial electricity generation, the Jülich Solar Tower owned by the German Aerospace Center.

History

Price of solar PV systems

History of PV roof-top prices in euro per kilowatt (€/kW)[13]

Germany was one of the first countries to deploy grid-scale PV power. In 2004, Germany was the first country, together with Japan, to reach 1 GW of cumulative installed PV capacity. Since 2004 solar power in Germany has been growing considerably due to the country's feed-in tariffs for renewable energy, which were introduced by the German Renewable Energy Sources Act, and declining PV costs.

Prices of PV systems/solar power system decreased more than 50% in the 5 years since 2006.[14] By 2011, solar PV provided 18 TWh of Germany's electricity, or about 3% of the total.[8] That year the federal government set a target of 66 GW of installed solar PV capacity by 2030,[15] to be reached with an annual increase of 2.5–3.5 GW,[16] and a goal of 80% of electricity from renewable sources by 2050.[17]

More than 7 GW of PV capacity were installed annually during the record years of 2010, 2011 and 2012. For this period, the installed capacity of 22.5 GW represented almost 30% of the worldwide deployed photovoltaics.

Since 2013, the number of new installations declined significantly due to more restrictive governmental policies.

Governmental policies
Further information: Feed-in tariffs in Germany and German Renewable Energy Sources Act

Feed-in tariff for rooftop solar[18]

History of German feed-in tariffs in ¢/kWh for rooftop solar of less than 10 kWp since 2001. For 2016, it amounted to 12.31 ¢/kWh.[18]

As of 2012, the feed-in tariff (FiT) costs about €14 billion (US$18 billion) per year for wind and solar installations. The cost is spread across all rate-payers in a surcharge of 3.6 €ct (4.6 ¢) per kWh[19] (approximately 15% of the total domestic cost of electricity).[20] On the other hand, as expensive peak power plants are displaced, the price at the power exchange is reduced due to the so-called merit order effect.[21] Germany set a world record for solar power production with 25.8 GW produced at midday on 20 and 21 April 2015.[22]

According to the solar power industry, a feed-in tariff is the most effective means of developing solar power.[23] It is the same as a power purchase agreement, but is at a much higher rate. As the industry matures, it is reduced and becomes the same as a power purchase agreement. A feed-in tariff allows investors a guaranteed return on investment – a requirement for development. A primary difference between a tax credit and a feed-in tariff is that the cost is borne the year of installation with a tax credit, and is spread out over many years with a feed-in tariff. In both cases the incentive cost is distributed over all consumers. This means that the initial cost is very low for a feed-in tariff and very high for a tax credit. In both cases the learning curve reduces the cost of installation, but is not a large contribution to growth, as grid parity is still always reached.[24]

Since the end of the boom period, national PV market has since declined significantly, due to the amendments in the German Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) that reduced feed-in tariffs and set constraints on utility-scaled installations, limiting their size to no more than 10 kW.[25]

The previous version of the EEG only guaranteed financial assistance as long as the PV capacity had not yet reached 52 GW. This limit has now been removed. It also foresees to regulate annual PV growth within a range of 2.5 GW to 3.5 GW by adjusting the guaranteed fees accordingly. The legislative reforms stipulates a 40 to 45 per cent share from renewable energy sources by 2025 and a 55 to 60 per cent share by 2035.[26]

As of November 2016, tenants in North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) will soon be able to benefit from the PV panels mounted on the buildings in which they live. The state government has introduced measures covering the self-consumption of power, allowing tenants to acquire the electricity generated onsite more cheaply than their regular utility contracts stipulate.[27][28]

Grid capacity and stability issues
German electricity generation on 25 and 26 May 2012

In 2017, approximately 9 GW of photovoltaic plants in Germany were being retrofitted to shut down[29] if the frequency increases to 50.2 Hz, indicating an excess of electricity on the grid. The frequency is unlikely to reach 50.2 Hz during normal operation, but can if Germany is exporting power to countries that suddenly experience a power failure. This leads to a surplus of generation in Germany, that is transferred to rotating load and generation, which causes system frequency to rise. This happened in 2003 and 2006.[30][31][32]

However, power failures could not have been caused by photovoltaics in 2006, as solar PV played a negligible role in the German energy mix at that time.[33] In December 2012, the president of Germany's "Bundesnetzagentur", the Federal Network Agency, stated that there is "no indication", that the switch to renewables is causing more power outages.[34] Amory Lovins from the Rocky Mountain Institute wrote about the German Energiewende in 2013, calling the discussion about grid stability a "disinformation campaign".[35]

Potential
Map of average solar radiation in Germany. For most of the country annual average values are in between 1100 and 1300 kWh per square metre.
Solar potential

Germany has about the same solar potential as Alaska, which has an average of 3.08 sun hours/day in Fairbanks.

Bremen Sun Hours/day (Avg = 2.92 hrs/day)

Stuttgart Sun Hours/day (Avg = 3.33 hrs/day)

Source: NREL, based on an average of 30 years of weather data.[36]

Statistics
Annual Solar Capacity Added
Comparison of renewable technologies and conventional power plants in Germany in EuroCent per kWh (2018)[37]
The share of solar PV in the country's electricity consumption plotted against an exponential growth curve from 1990 to 2015, doubling every 1.56 years, or growing 56% annually on average. The doubling time and growth rate differ from those of average power and installed capacity as the overall consumption also increased over time. After 2012 the trend slowed down significantly, with only 8.2% of the electricity coming from solar power in 2019.

The history of Germany's installed photovoltaic capacity, its average power output, produced electricity, and its share in the overall consumed electricity, showed a steady, exponential growth for more than two decades up to about 2012. Solar PV capacity doubled on average every 18 months in this period; an annual growth rate of more than 50 per cent. Since about 2012 growth has slowed down significantly.

Generation
Year Capacity
(MW)		 Net annual
generation
(GWh)		 % of gross
electricity
consumption		 Capacity
Factor (%)
1990212e-045.7
1991212e-045.7
1992647e-047.6
1993936e-043.8
19941270.0016.7
19951870.0014.4
199628120.0024.9
199742180.0034.9
199854350.0067.4
199970300.0054.9
2000114600.016.0
2001176760.0134.9
20022961620.0286.2
20034353130.0528.2
200411055570.0915.8
2005205612820.217.1
2006289922200.368.7
2007417030750.498.4
2008612044200.728.2
20091056665831.137.1
201018006117291.97.4
201125916195993.238.6
201234077262204.358.8
201336710300205.139.6
201437900347356.0810.9
201539224373306.511.3
201640679368206.410.7
201742293380016.610.6
201845158434517.711.6
201948864443348.211.1
202054403485258.910.1
202160108483738.79.1
2022 67399 59596 11.1 10.1

Source: Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, for capacity figures[5]: 7  and other figures.[5]: 16–41 

Note: This table does not show net consumption but gross electricity consumption, which includes self-consumption of nuclear and coal-fire power plants. In 2014, net consumption stood at about 6.9% (vs. 6.1% for gross consumption).[3]: 5 

Nationwide PV capacity in megawatts on a linear scale since 1990.
Source: Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy[5]: 7 

Solar PV by type
Installed PV capacity in Germany by class size 2017[38]
Size
band		% of total
capacity		Notes
<10 kW 14.2% Single direct use systems, mostly residential solar pv systems
10–100 kW 38.2% Systems used collectively within one place such as a large residential block or large commercial premise or intensive agricultural units
100–500 kW 14.1% Typically larger commercial centres, hospitals, schools or industrial/agricultural premises or smaller ground mounted systems
>500 kW 33.5% Mostly district power systems, ground-mounted panels providing power to perhaps a mix of industrial and commercial sites

It is interesting to note that whilst large power plants receive a lot of attention in solar power articles, installations under 0.5 MW in size actually represented nearly two-thirds of the installed capacity in Germany in 2017.

PV capacity by federal states
Watts per capita by state in 2013[39]
  10 – 50 Watts
  50 – 100 Watts
  100 – 200 Watts
  200 – 350 Watts
  350 – 500 Watts
  500 – 750 Watts
  >750 Watts

Germany is made up of sixteen, partly sovereign federal states or Länder. The southern states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg account for about half of the total, nationwide PV deployment and are also the wealthiest and most populous states after North Rhine-Westphalia. However, photovoltaic installations are widespread throughout the sixteen states and are not limited to the southern region of the country as demonstrated by a watts per capita distribution.

PV capacity in MW[40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]
State 2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2023
(April) 		 W per
capita
(2023-4) 
Baden-Württemberg1,2451,7722,9073,7535,838.06,111.84,984.55,117.08,809791
Bavaria2,3593,9556,3657,9619,700.510,424.711,099.811,309.219,5631,484
Berlin1119685063.268.680.583.921558
Brandenburg722196381,3132,576.12,711.22,901.02,981.55,9202,332
Bremen45143032.335.339.942.270103
Hamburg79272532.135.836.536.99048
Hesse3505498681,1741,520.91,661.81,768.51,811.23,201508
Lower Saxony3527091,4792,0513,045.13,257.43,490.63,580.45,957742
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern4888263455957.71,098.51,337.91,414.43,5192,184
North Rhine-Westphalia6171,0461,9252,6013,582.03,878.54,234.94,363.78,113452
Rhineland-Palatinate3325048411,1241,528.21,670.81,862.21,920.53,356817
Saarland67100158218318.8365.4407.3415.8738751
Saxony1682885298361,280.81,412.31,575.11,607.52,995740
Saxony-Anhalt941814508171,377.91,556.11,828.71,962.63,8911,793
Schleswig-Holstein1593106959921,351.51,407.81,468.61,498.32,587885
Thuringia95159327467871.71,013.91,119.91,187.42,2261,055
Cumulative total installed5,9799,91317,55423,86634,076.736,710.138,236.039,332.471,259856
Capacity added—3,9347,6416,31210,210.72,633.41,525.91,096.4

Photovoltaic power stations
Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations

Largest photovoltaic power stations
PV Power station Capacity
in MWp		 Commissioning Location Notes
Solarpark Weesow-Willmersdorf 187 2020 52°38′51.0″N 13°41′29.8″E [49]
Solarpark Tramm-Göhten 172 2022 53.5267°N 11.6609°E / 53.5267; 11.6609 (Solarpark Tramm-Göhten) [50]
Solarpark Meuro 166 2011/2012 51°32′42″N 13°58′48″E [51]
Solarpark Gottesgabe 150 2021 52°38′28.7″N 14°11′32.3″E [52]
Solarpark Alttrebbin 150 2021 52°41′51.0″N 14°13′51.6″E [53]
Neuhardenberg Solar Park 145 September 2012 52°36′50″N 14°14′33″E [51][54]
Templin Solar Park 128.5 September 2012 53°1′44″N 13°32′1″E [51][55]
Solarpark Schornhof 120 2020 48°38′56.4″N 11°16′41.5″E [56]
Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark 91 December 2011 52°26′12.1″N 12°27′5.0″E
Solarpark Gaarz 90 2021 53.4148°N 12.2470°E / 53.4148; 12.2470 (Solarpark Gaarz) [57]
Solarpark Finow Tower 84.7 2010/2011 52°49′31″N 13°41′54″E
Eggebek Solar Park 83.6 2011 54°37′46″N 9°20′36″E
Finsterwalde Solar Park 80.7 2009/2010 51°34′7.0″N 13°44′15.0″E [58][59]
Solarpark Zietlitz 76 2021 53.6391°N 12.3643°E / 53.6391; 12.3643 (Solarpark Zietlitz) [60]
Lieberose Photovoltaic Park 71.8 2009 51°55′54.8″N 14°24′25.9″E [61][62]
Solarpark Alt Daber 67.8 2011 53°12′N 12°31′E [51]
Solarpark Ganzlin 65 2020 53.3818°N 12.2688°E / 53.3818; 12.2688 (Solarpark Ganzlin) [63]
Solarpark Lauterbach 54.7 2022 50.59600°N 9.36900°E / 50.59600; 9.36900 (Solarpark Lauterbach) [64]
Strasskirchen Solar Park 54 December 2009 48°48′11″N 12°46′1″E [51]
Walddrehna Solar Park 52.3 2012 51°45′45″N 13°36′4″E
Waldpolenz Solar Park 52 December 2008 51°19′25″N 12°39′4″E [65][66]
Tutow Solar Park 52 2009/2010/2011 53°55′26″N 13°13′32″E

Other notable photovoltaic stations
Name & Description Capacity
in MWp 		Location Annual yield
in MWh 		Capacity factor Coordinates
Erlasee Solar Park, 1408 SOLON 12 Arnstein 14,000 0.13 50°0′10″N 9°55′15″E
Gottelborn Solar Park 8.4 Göttelborn n.a. n.a. 49°20′21″N 7°2′7″E
Bavaria Solarpark, 57,600 solar modules 6.3 Mühlhausen 6,750 0.12 49°09′29″N 11°25′59″E
Rote Jahne Solar Park, 92,880 thin-film modules,
First Solar, FS-260, FS-262 and FS-265[67][68] 		6.0 Doberschütz 5,700 0.11 51°30′28.8″N 12°40′55.9″E
Bürstadt Solar Farm, 30,000 BP Solar modules 5.0 Bürstadt 4,200 0.10 49°39′N 8°28′E
Espenhain, 33,500 Shell Solar modules 5.0 Espenhain 5,000 0.11 51°12′N 12°31′E
Geiseltalsee Solarpark, 24,864 BP solar modules 4.0 Merseburg 3,400 0.10 51°22′N 12°0′E
Hemau Solar Farm, 32,740 solar modules 4.0 Hemau 3,900 0.11 49°3′N 11°47′E
Solara, Sharp and Kyocera solar modules 3.3 Dingolfing 3,050 0.11 48°38′N 12°30′E
Solarpark Herten, 11.319 Modules from Astronergy 3 Rheinfelden 3,000 0.11 47°32′39″N 7°43′30″E
Bavaria Solarpark, Sharp solar modules 1.9 Günching n.a. n.a. 49.2636°N 11.5907°E / 49.2636; 11.5907 (Bavaria Solarpark)
Bavaria Solarpark, Sharp solar modules 1.9 Minihof n.a. n.a. 48.47818°N 12.91914°E / 48.47818; 12.91914 (Bavaria Solarpark)

Companies

Some companies have collapsed since 2008, facing harsh competition from imported solar panels. Some were taken over like Bosch Solar Energy by SolarWorld. Major German solar companies include:

See also

References
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