South Kivu

For three decades, the region has been plagued by armed conflicts and violence. Various armed groups and militias have operated in the area, leading to displacement, human rights abuses, and the disruption of essential services.[22][23][24]

At the outset of the First Congo War, South Kivu played a key role as a battleground for the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Its plateaus and hills served as strategic strongholds for the advancing AFDL forces, who aimed to pursue Hutu refugees, particularly the ex-FAR/Interahamwe, while simultaneously seeking to overthrow Mobutu's government. This response was prompted by the mistreatment of Tutsi civilians under Mobutu's regime, which subjected them to arbitrary arrests and detentions conducted by Zairian police and soldiers.[25][26][27]

The Lemera Hospital, where the Lemera massacre took place

The AFDL's pursuit of Hutu refugees led to widespread violence and atrocities.[28] The AFDL forces, resorting to indiscriminate killings, mass executions, and acts of torture, initiated the First Congo War with a massacre in the Lemera groupement (grouping) of South Kivu, on October 6, 1996. The massacre claimed the lives of several dozen individuals. In a hospital massacre, 37 individuals, including two medical personnel, were killed.[29][30] On October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians in Rubenga, a village in South Kivu.[31] Another attack occurred on October 21, 1996, in Lubarika village, where an unknown number of Rwandan and Burundian refugees, along with Zairian civilians, were killed by the AFDL forces. Local people were coerced into burying the bodies in four large mass graves.[32] In Kamanyola, on October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians, disposing of their bodies in pit latrines.[33] The AFDL persisted in launching attacks on South Kivu's refugee camps, rivers, airports, and densely populated villages. They carried out civilian executions and acts of terrorism against Zairian civilians in various locations, including Nyantende, Bukavu, Lwakabiri, Kashusha, Ulindi River, Kigulube, Ivela, Balika, Kavumu Airport, Lulingu, and Keisha.[34][35] In May 1997, the AFDL gained control over significant parts of the country and captured the capital, Kinshasa. Mobutu fled the country and Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed leadership, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[36][37]

From late 1997 onwards, the relationship between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, Rwanda and the Tutsi soldiers present in the AFDL deteriorated. Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government faced multiple accusations of marginalizing Tutsi political factions, excluding them from his administration, and displaying preferential treatment toward his Katanga clan.[38] In July 1998, driven by fears of a coup d'état, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila relieved Rwandan General James Kabarebe of his position as Chief of Staff of the AFDL, while also issuing an order for the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory.[39] In response, on 2nd August 1998, a faction of Tutsi soldiers mutinied and, with the assistance of the AFDL, the Banyamulenge militias, the Ugandan army (Ugandan People's Defence Force; UPDF), and the Burundi army (Forces Armées Burundaises; FAB), launched a rebellion aimed at overthrowing President Laurent-Désiré Kabila.[38][40] Within a few weeks, this coalition formed the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) and gained control over major urban centers in North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and even managed to penetrate into the Équateur Province. The war resulted in wide-scale displacement, famine, and a staggering loss of lives. Numerous rebel groups and militias emerged, further intensifying the violence and leading to pervasive human rights violations, including large-scale massacres and incidents of sexual violence.[40][41][42]

Makobola Massacre monument in Fizi Territory of South Kivu

On August 6, 1998, factions of the ANC/RPA/FAB perpetrated a massacre, claiming the lives of numerous civilians in Uvira, in South Kivu.[43] As civilians sought shelter or attempted to flee the combat zone, they fell victim to the FAC in confrontations, resulting in hundreds of fatalities. Moreover, on the same day, members of the ANC, the armed wing of the RCD rebel, killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule in South Kivu.[44] Another massacre unfolded as elements of the ANC/RPA claimed the lives of 15 individuals in the vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe, all situated in South Kivu. The victims suffered from dagger wounds or were shot near the primary port in Kalundu and at the facilities of SEP Congo.[45] On August 24, 1998, RCD forces and Rwandan soldiers unleashed a massacre in Kasika and neighboring villages in South Kivu, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 people, as reported by the United Nations Mapping Report.[46][47] The majority of the recovered bodies, predominantly women and children, were discovered on the 60-kilometer journey from Kilungutwe village to Kasika.[48][49] Prior to their murders, the women were subjected to rape followed by brutal disembowelment using daggers.[47][50] From December 30, 1998, to January 2, 1999, RCD forces committed another massacre, claiming the lives of over 800 civilians, primarily belonging to the Babembe community, in the small village of Makobola in South Kivu. Many victims endured machete attacks or were shot at close range, while others met their demise through burning or drowning in nearby rivers. Infants and young children were callously thrown into deep pit latrines, left to perish, while adults who dared to disobey orders and attempted to escape were met with bullets.[51][52] On May 14, 2000, members of the ANC conducted a massacre resulting in 300 deaths in the village of Katogota in South Kivu.[53][54][55]

The war officially ended in 2003 with the signing of the Sun City Agreement, which aimed to establish a transitional government and promote peace and stability in the DRC. However, sporadic violence and conflicts in the region persisted even after the official end of the war.[39]

The Banyamulenge, who actively aligned themselves with the AFDL and RCD factions throughout the duration of the Second Congo War, have been subject to widespread disdain among many Congolese due to their alleged involvement in a range of nefarious activities. These accusations include launching assaults on refugee camps and densely populated villages, engaging in civilian executions, and orchestrating acts of terrorism targeting Zairian civilians across various regions of South and North Kivu. Consequently, a considerable number of Congolese view the Banyamulenge as unwelcome intruders encroaching upon their native territories, thereby intensifying the deep-rooted animosity directed towards them.[56][57]

Victims of sexual violence in the town Bunyakiri in the Kalehe Territory of the South Kivu Province, August 2010

The UN estimates that in 2005, approximately 45,000 women were raped in South Kivu.[58] It forms various armed groups, including the Rwandan-backed armed groups, Banyamulenge armed groups, Raia Mutomboki, Mai-Mai militias, ADF (Allied Democratic Forces) and FDLR. There have been numerous accounts and allegations of sexual violence perpetrated by members of the Congolese army (Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo; FARDC) in eastern Congo. The 10th Military Region of the newly established Congolese military, led by General Pacifique Masunzu, whose undisciplined former factional soldiers are responsible for human rights violations due to a continuing culture of impunity for military personnel, compounded by challenging living conditions, inadequate remuneration, and insufficient training.[22][24][59]

Masunzu is Munyamulenge (South Kivu Banyamulenge Tutsi) who broke with the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) back in 2003. He was formerly commander of the 122nd Brigade in the Minembwe area, who in 2005 rebelled against the authorities in defence of the Congolese Banyamulenge, against harassment and physical abuse. Also previously former second in command of 4th Military Region in Kasai-Occidental. Africa Confidential said in 2011 that he 'clearly remains implacably opposed to the Rwandan government.'[60][61] His deputy Colonel Baudouin Nakabaka is a former Mai-Mai fighter with close links to the FDLR.

Fuliiru woman mourns the death of Regina, a 4-year-old displaced girl who died from lack of care, Bijombo, South Kivu Province.

In July 2007, United Nations human rights expert Yakin Erturk called the situation in South Kivu the worst she has ever seen in four years as the global body's special investigator for violence against women. Sexual violence throughout Congo is "rampant," she said, blaming rebel groups, the armed forces and national police. Her statement included that "Frequently women are shot or stabbed in their genital organs, after they are raped. Women, who survived months of enslavement, told me that their tormentors had forced them to eat excrement or the human flesh of murdered relatives."[62]

In June 2014, around 35 people were killed in an attack in the South Kivu village of Mutarule. The attack was apparently part of dispute over cattle.[63]

On 7 August 2015 the 2015 South Kivu earthquake, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake, struck 35 km (22 mi) north-northeast of Kabare at a depth of 12.0 km (7.5 mi).[64] One policeman was killed.

On July 16, 2020, the Ngumino and Twiganeho militias of the Banyamulenge community perpetrated the Kipupu massacre, which claimed the lives of 220 people in South Kivu village of Kipupu, as reported by provincial lawmakers.[65][66]

South Kivu Province is characterized by numerous rivers, lakes, and waterways that crisscross through its landscapes. The region lies in the center of the African Great Lakes, encompassed by Lake Kivu towards the west and sharing its border with the Virunga National Park on the east. The Ruzizi River, one of the longest rivers in the world, flows along the province's eastern edge. Meanwhile, its tributaries—the Sange, Kavinvira, Kavimvira, Luvimvi, Luvungi, Luvubu, Luberizi, Runingu, Mulongwe, Kiliba, Kalimabenge, and Lugulu Rivers—run through the verdant terrains, nurturing the surrounding ecosystems and supporting farming activities.[78][79][80]

The province is home to several lakes, including Lake Tanganyika which serve as critical sources of freshwater and habitats for diverse aquatic species.[81]

Ruzizi Plain, South Kivu Province, October 2012

Sange River, April 2022

While the province is rich in natural resources, it is also fraught with challenges and dangers. The area is susceptible to periodic floods, particularly during the rainy season, which cause disruptions to both the community and infrastructure. Over the last few years, parts of the province have been ravaged by flooding. In March 2020–23, torrential rains and the overflow of nearby tributaries inundated homes, including the Sange and Uvira, located in Uvira Territory. These regions experienced severe flooding, resulting in a sudden surge of water that overwhelmed the local infrastructure and communities. The force of the floodwaters led to the collapse of many houses, leaving families homeless and vulnerable. The aftermath of the flooding also led to the displacement of people who sought refuge in temporary shelters or with relatives in safer areas.[82][83][84][85]

Similarly, other areas in South Kivu Province also faced the wrath of floods, including Nyambasha, Bushushu, Rambira, and Nyamukubi in Kalehe Territory. These communities, situated in low-lying areas near rivers and water bodies, are particularly susceptible to the destructive impact of flooding. Heavy rains and rising water levels overwhelm local infrastructure and defenses, causing homes to collapse and forcing residents to flee for safety.[86][87][88]

Mount Kahuzi, February 2014

The province houses many volcanoes, including Mount Kahuzi, Mount Muhi and Mount Kabobo.[89][90] These volcanoes are part of the larger Virunga Mountains, which stretches from Uganda through Rwanda and into the DRC. The province also includes parts of the Albertine Rift, a branch of the larger East African Rift System. This rift valley is characterized by tectonic forces that led to the stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust, resulting in the formation of deep valleys and steep escarpments. The rift valley is associated with the presence of lakes, including Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika, which are major features of the landscape in South Kivu Province.[91] In addition to volcanic and rift valley formations, the province also contains sedimentary basins. These basins, such as the Lake Kivu Basin, are areas where layers of sediment have accumulated over time. They are important for their mineral resources, including deposits of diamonds, gold, copper, cobalt, tin, tantalum and lithium.[92][93]

Territories serve as the extensive arms of state administration, functioning as representatives of the central government. Appointed by the Ministry of the Interior, territorial officials are included in the state's budgetary provisions. While they directly report to the Ministry of the Interior, they are also accountable to the governor, who acts as the representative of both the President in the province and the Ministry of the Interior. The primary role of territorial administrators is to represent the state at the local level and oversee chiefdoms (collectivités).[94]

South Kivu Province is divided into eight territories:

• Fizi (15,788 km²), capital Fizi town;
• Idjwi (281 km²), this is an island in Lake Kivu;
• Kabare (1,960 km²),
• Kalehe (5,126 km²),
• Mwenga (11,172 km²),
• Shabunda (25,116 km²),
• Uvira (3,148 km²), capital Uvira town;
• Walungu (1,800 km²),

In the legal view, the province has three major cities of importance: Baraka (Fizi Territory), Bukavu (Provincial Capital) and Uvira (Uvira Territory).[95] The northern city of Minova grew exponentially from 1994 through 2012 with a steady influx of refugees as a result of the disruption of the Rwandan genocide and the First and Second Congo wars, and continued fighting in the area.[96]

The city of Bukavu has experienced an exponential urban growth since colonial times. Sadiki et al. (2010) report about 620,000 inhabitants for 2008. The population growth rate increased incredibly in 2002 due to the entry of massive population from Goma after the Nyiragongo eruption of 17 January 2002.[97]

Traditional authority is vested in chieftaincies, also known as collectivities (collectivités) or sectors. The selection of the powerholder within a chiefdom or sector is determined by ethnic traditions and later recognized or formalized by the state, following traditional rules. The leader of a chiefdom carries the honored title of Mwami. The chiefdom is further subdivided into Groupements (groupings), which extend the reach of traditional authority to regrouped villages. The village chiefs are responsible for overseeing the administration and governance within their respective areas.[94]

Some of the notable chiefdoms and sectors in South Kivu Province:

South Kivu is divided into 34 health zones (zones de santé). These are grouped into five health districts (districts de santé). These districts do not match the geography of the territories.