Abdul Hamid II

Abdul Hamid worked with the Young Ottomans to realize some form of constitutional arrangement.[13] This new form in its theoretical space could help to realize a liberal transition with Islamic arguments. The Young Ottomans believed that the modern parliamentary system was a restatement of the practice of consultation, or shura, which had existed in early Islam.[14]

In December 1876, due to the 1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the then-ongoing war with Serbia and Montenegro and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the 1876 Bulgarian rebellion, Abdul Hamid promulgated the constitution and its parliament.[1] The commission to establish a new constitution was headed by Midhat Pasha, and the cabinet passed the constitution on 6 December 1876, giving Abdul Hamid the right to exile anyone he deemed a threat to the state and allowing for a bicameral legislature with appointments made by the sultan.[15]

The international Constantinople Conference[16][17] towards the end of 1876 was surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but European powers at the conference rejected the constitution as a significant change; they preferred the 1856 constitution (Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümâyûnu) or the 1839 Gülhane edict (Hatt-ı Şerif), but questioned whether a parliament was necessary to act as an official voice of the people.

In any event, like many other would-be reforms of the Ottoman Empire, it proved nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war. Early in 1877, the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire.

Ottoman troops under Romanian attack at the Siege of Plevna (1877) in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)

Abdul Hamid's biggest fear, near dissolution, was realized with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies. Russian chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement by that time. The British Empire, though still fearing the Russian threat to the British presence in India, did not involve itself in the conflict because of public opinion against the Ottomans, following reports of Ottoman brutality in putting down the Bulgarian uprising. The Russian victory was quickly realized; the conflict ended in February 1878. The Treaty of San Stefano, signed at the end of the war, imposed harsh terms: the Ottoman Empire gave independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; it granted autonomy to Bulgaria; instituted reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and ceded parts of Dobrudzha to Romania and parts of Armenia to Russia, which was also paid an enormous indemnity. After the war, Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution in February 1878 and dismissed the parliament after its solitary meeting in March 1877. For the next three decades, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Abdulhamid from Yıldız Palace.[1]

As Russia could dominate the newly independent states, the country's influence in Southeastern Europe was greatly increased by the Treaty of San Stefano. Due to the insistence of the Great Powers (especially the United Kingdom), the treaty was later revised at the Congress of Berlin so as to reduce the great advantages acquired by Russia. In exchange for these favors, Cyprus was ceded to Britain in 1878. There were troubles in Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed. Abdul Hamid mishandled relations with Urabi Pasha, and as a result Britain gained de facto control over Egypt and Sudan by sending its troops in 1882 to establish control over the two provinces. Cyprus, Egypt, and Sudan remained ostensibly Ottoman provinces until 1914, when Britain officially annexed those territories in response to the Ottoman participation in World War I on the side of the Central Powers.

Şehzade (Prince) Abdul Hamid in 1868.

Abdul Hamid's distrust of the reformist admirals of the Ottoman Navy (whom he suspected of plotting against him and trying to bring back the 1876 constitution) and his subsequent decision to lock the Ottoman fleet (the world's third-largest fleet during the reign of his predecessor Abdul Aziz) inside the Golden Horn caused the loss of Ottoman overseas territories and islands in North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea during and after his reign.[18]

Financial difficulties forced him to consent to foreign control over the Ottoman national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, a large portion of the empire's revenues were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders.

The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia was another blow to the Empire. The creation of an independent and powerful Bulgaria was viewed as a serious threat to the Ottoman Empire. For many years Abdul Hamid had to deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize either Russian or German wishes. There were also key problems regarding the Albanian question resulting from the Albanian League of Prizren and with the Greek and Montenegrin frontiers where the European powers were determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into effect.

Crete was granted 'extended privileges', but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification with Greece. In early 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrow Ottoman rule on the island. This act was followed by war, in which the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece (see the Greco-Turkish War (1897)); but as a result of the Treaty of Constantinople, Crete was taken over en depot by the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. Prince George of Greece was appointed ruler and Crete was effectively lost to the Ottoman Empire.[1] The ʿAmmiyya, a revolt in 1889–90 among Druze and other Syrians against excesses of the local sheikhs, similarly led to capitulation to the rebels' demands, as well as concessions to Belgian and French companies to provide Beirut and Damascus with a railroad between them.

Abdul Hamid II greeting people

Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer.[19] But despite working with the reformist Young Ottomans while still a crown prince and appearing as a liberal leader, he became increasingly conservative immediately after taking the throne. In a process known as İstibdad, Abdul Hamid succeeded in reducing his ministers to secretaries, and concentrated much of the Empire's administration into his own hands at Yıldız Palace. Default in the public funds, an empty treasury, the 1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the war with Serbia and Montenegro, the result of Russo-Turkish war and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by Abdul Hamid's government in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion all contributed to his apprehension about enacting significant changes.[19]

His push for education resulted in the establishment of 18 professional schools, and in 1900, Darulfunun, now known as Istanbul University, was established.[1] He also created a large system of primary, secondary, and military schools throughout the empire.[1] 51 secondary schools were constructed in a 12-year period (1882–1894). As the goal of the educational reforms in the Hamidian era were to counter foreign influence, these secondary schools utilized European teaching techniques, yet instilled within students a strong sense of Ottoman identity and Islamic morality.[20]

Abdul Hamid also reorganized the Ministry of Justice and developed rail and telegraph systems.[1] The telegraph system expanded to incorporate the furthest parts of the Empire. Railways connected Constantinople and Vienna by 1883, and shortly afterward the Orient Express connected Paris to Constantinople. During his rule, railways within the Ottoman Empire expanded to connect Ottoman-controlled Europe and Anatolia with Constantinople as well. The increased ability to travel and communicate within the Ottoman Empire served to strengthen Constantinople's influence over the rest of the Empire.[20]

Abdul Hamid took tight measures for his security. The memory of the deposition of Abdul Aziz was on his mind and convinced him that a constitutional government was not a good idea. Because of this, information was tightly controlled and the press tightly censored. A secret police (Umur-u Hafiye) and a network of informants was present throughout the empire, and many politicians of the Second Constitutional Era and the future Turkish Republic were arrested and/or exiled. School curricula were closely inspected to prevent dissidence. Ironically, the schools that Abdul Hamid founded and tried to control became "breeding grounds of discontent" as students and teachers alike chafed at the censors' clumsy restrictions.[21]

20 kuruş during the reign of Abdul Hamid II, dating 1878

Seal of Abdul Hamid II

Starting around 1890, Armenians began demanding implementation of the reforms promised to them at the Berlin Conference.[22] To prevent such measures, in 1890–91, Abdul Hamid gave semi-official status to the bandits who were already actively mistreating the Armenians in the provinces. Made up of Kurds and other ethnic groups such as Turcomans, and armed by the state, they came to be called the Hamidiye Alayları ("Hamidian Regiments").[23] The Hamidiye and Kurdish brigands were given free rein to attack Armenians, confiscating stores of grain, foodstuffs, and driving off livestock, and confident of escaping punishment as they were subject only to court-martial.[24] In the face of such violence, the Armenians established revolutionary organizations, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchak; founded in Switzerland in 1887) and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (the ARF or Dashnaktsutiun, founded in 1890 in Tiflis).[25] Clashes ensued and unrest occurred in 1892 at Merzifon and in 1893 at Tokat. Abdul Hamid did not hesitate to put down these revolts with harsh methods while using local Muslims (in most cases Kurds) against the Armenians.[26] As a result of such violence, 300,000 Armenians were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. News of the massacres was widely reported in Europe and the United States and drew strong responses from foreign governments and humanitarian organizations alike.[27] Hence, Abdul Hamid was called the "Bloody Sultan" or "Red Sultan" in the West. On 21 July 1905, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation attempted to assassinate him with a car bombing during a public appearance, but the Sultan was delayed for a minute and the bomb went off too early, killing 26, wounding 58 (four of whom died during their treatment in hospital) and destroying 17 cars. This continued aggression, along with the handling of the Armenian desire for reform, led western European powers to take a more hands-on approach with the Turks.[1]

Map of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Abdul Hamid II

After being approached by the United States Minister to the Ottoman Empire Oscar Straus, Abdul Hamid sent a letter to the Moros of the Sulu Sultanate telling them not to resist American takeover and to cooperate with the Americans at the start of the Moro Rebellion. The Sulu Moros complied.

John Hay, the American Secretary of State, asked Straus in 1898 to approach Abdul Hamid to request that he, in his capacity as Caliph, write a letter to the Moro Sulu Muslims of the Sulu Sultanate in the Philippines telling them to submit to American suzerainty and American military rule. The Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter, which was sent to Sulu via Mecca, whence two Sulu chiefs brought it home to Sulu, and it was successful, since the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."[28] Abdul Hamid used his position as caliph to order the Sulu Sultan not to resist or fight the Americans when they became subject to American control.[29] President McKinley did not mention the Ottoman role in the pacification of the Sulu Moros in his address to the first session of the Fifty-sixth Congress in December 1899, since the agreement with the Sultan of Sulu was not submitted to the Senate until 18 December.[30] Despite Abdul Hamid's "pan-Islamic" ideology, he readily acceded to Straus's request for help in telling the Sulu Muslims to not resist America since he felt no need to cause hostilities between the West and Muslims.[31] Collaboration between the American military and Sulu Sultanate was due to the Sulu Sultan being persuaded by the Ottoman Sultan.[32] John P. Finley wrote:

After due consideration of these facts, the Sultan, as Caliph caused a message to be sent to the Mohammedans of the Philippine Islands forbidding them to enter into any hostilities against the Americans, inasmuch as no interference with their religion would be allowed under American rule. As the Moros have never asked more than that, it is not surprising, that they refused all overtures made, by Aguinaldo's agents, at the time of the Filipino insurrection. President McKinley sent a personal letter of thanks to Mr. Straus for the excellent work he had done, and said, its accomplishment had saved the United States at least twenty thousand troops in the field.[33][34]

Abdul Hamid in his position as Caliph was approached by the Americans to help them deal with Muslims during their war in the Philippines,[35] and the Muslim people of the area obeyed the order sent by Abdul Hamid to help the Americans.[36][37][38]

The Bates Treaty, which the Americans signed with the Moro Sulu Sultanate and which guaranteed the Sultanate's autonomy in its internal affairs and governance, was then violated by the Americans, who then invaded Moroland,[39] causing the Moro Rebellion to break out in 1904 with war raging between the Americans and Moro Muslims and atrocities committed against Moro Muslim women and children, such as the Moro Crater Massacre.

Abdul Hamid II attempted to correspond with the Chinese Muslim troops in service of the Qing imperial army serving under General Dong Fuxiang; they were also known as the Kansu Braves

The Triple Entente – the United Kingdom, France and Russia – maintained strained relations with the Ottoman Empire. Abdul Hamid and his close advisors believed the Empire should be treated as an equal player by these great powers. In the Sultan's view, the Ottoman Empire was a European empire, distinct for having more Muslims than Christians.

Over time the hostile diplomatic attitudes shown from France (the occupation of Tunisia in 1881) and Great Britain (the 1882 establishment of de facto control in Egypt) caused Abdul Hamid to gravitate towards Germany.[1] Kaiser Wilhelm II was twice hosted by Abdul Hamid in Istanbul, on 21 October 1889, and on 5 October 1898. (Wilhelm II later visited Constantinople a third time, on 15 October 1917, as a guest of Mehmed V). German officers (like Baron von der Goltz and Bodo-Borries von Ditfurth) were employed to oversee the organization of the Ottoman Army.)

German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. Additionally, the German Emperor was rumored to have counseled Abdul Hamid in his controversial decision to appoint his third son as his successor.[40] Germany's friendship was not altruistic; it had to be fostered with railway and loan concessions. In 1899, a significant German desire, the construction of a Berlin-Baghdad railway, was granted.[1]

Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany also requested the Sultan's help when having trouble with Chinese Muslim troops. During the Boxer Rebellion, the Chinese Muslim Kansu Braves fought against the German Army, routing them, along with the other Eight Nation Alliance forces. The Muslim Kansu Braves and Boxers defeated the Alliance forces led by the German Captain Guido von Usedom at the Battle of Langfang in the Seymour Expedition in 1900 and besieged the trapped Alliance forces during the Siege of the International Legations. It was only on the second attempt, in the Gasalee Expedition, that the Alliance forces managed to get through to battle the Chinese Muslim troops at the Battle of Peking. Kaiser Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested that Abdul Hamid find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid agreed to the Kaiser's demands and sent Enver Pasha to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time.[41] Because the Ottomans did not want conflict against the European nations and because the Ottoman Empire was ingratiating itself to gain German assistance, an order imploring Chinese Muslims to avoid assisting the Boxers was issued by the Ottoman Khalifa and reprinted in Egyptian and Muslim Indian newspapers.[42]

Opening of the first Ottoman Parliament (Meclis-i Umumî), 1877.

Greek lithograph celebrating the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 and the restoration of the 1876 constitution in the Ottoman Empire

The national humiliation of the Macedonian conflict, together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.[43] The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), a Young Turks organization that was especially influential in the Rumelian army units undertook the Young Turk Revolution in the summer of 1908. Abdul Hamid, upon learning that the troops in Salonica were marching on Istanbul (23 July), at once capitulated. On 24 July an irade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1876; the next day, further irades abolished espionage and censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners.[43]

On 17 December, Abdul Hamid opened the General Assembly with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been "temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."[43]

The new attitude of the sultan did not save himself from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude towards the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909 known as the 31 March Incident, when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative upheaval in some parts of the military in the capital overthrew Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha's government. With the Young Turks driven out of the capital, Abdul Hamid appointed Ahmet Tevfik Pasha in his place, and once again suspended the Constitution and shuttered the parliament. However the Sultan was only in control of Constantinople while the Young Turks were still influential in the rest of the Army and provinces. The CUP appealed to Mahmud Shevket Pasha to restore the status quo, who organized an ad hoc formation known as the Action Army which marched on Constantinople. Şevket Pasha's Chief of Staff was captain Mustafa Kemal. The Action Army stopped by first in Aya Stefanos, and negotiated with the rival government established by deputies who escaped from the capital, led by Mehmed Talat. It was secretly decided there that Abdul Hamid had to be deposed. When the Action Army entered Istanbul, a Fatwa was issued condemning Abdul Hamid, and the parliament voted to dethrone him. On 27 April Abdul Hamid's half-brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as Sultan Mehmed V.[19]

The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists against the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province, known as the Adana massacre.[44]

Sultan Abdul Hamid II was a practitioner of traditional Islamic Sufism. He was influenced by Libyan Shadhili Madani Sheikh, Muhammad Zafir al-Madani whose lessons he would attend in disguise in Unkapani before he became Sultan. Abdul Hamid II asked Sheikh al-Madani to return to Istanbul after he ascended the throne. The sheik initiated Shadhili gatherings of remembrance (dhikr) in the newly commissioned Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque; on Thursday evenings he would accompany Sufi masters in reciting dhikr.[51] He also became a close religious and political confidant of the Sultan. In 1879, the Sultan excused the taxes of all of the Caliphate's Madani Sufi lodges (also known as zawiyas and tekkes). In 1888, he even established a Sufi lodge for the Madani order of Shadhili Sufism in Istanbul, which he commissioned as part of the Ertuğrul Tekke mosque. The relationship of the Sultan and the sheik lasted for thirty years until the latter's death in 1903.[54]

A sample of his handwritten poetry in Persian language and scripts, which was taken from the book My Father Abdul Hameed, written by his daughter Ayşe Sultan

Abdul Hamid wrote poetry, following on the footsteps of many other Ottoman sultans. One of his poems translates thus:

My Lord I know you are the Dear One (Al-Aziz)

... And no one but you are the Dear One
You are the One, and nothing else
My God take my hand in these hard times

My God be my helper in this critical hour

In the opinion of F. A. K. Yasamee:[55]

He was a striking amalgam of determination and timidity, of insight and fantasy, held together by immense practical caution and an instinct for the fundamentals of power. He was frequently underestimated. Judged on his record, he was a formidable domestic politician and an effective diplomat.[56]

Abdülhamid II had at least sixteen consorts:[57][58][59][60][61][62]

• Nazikeda Kadın (1848 - 11 April 1895). BaşKadin (First Consort). She was an Abkhazian princess, born Mediha Hanim, lady-in-waiting of Cemile Sultan. She died prematurely after years of deep depression, due to the tragic death of her only daughter.
• Safinaz Nurefsun Kadın (1850 - 1915). Her real name was Ayşe and she was the younger sister of the last consort of Abdülmecid I, Yıldız Hanım. When Yıldız Hanım married Abdülmecid, Ayşe was sent to the service of Şehzade Abdülaziz, where she was renamed Safinaz. According to Harun Açba, Abdülaziz was fascinated by her beauty and wanted to marry her, but she refused because she was in love with Şehzade Abdülhamid (future Abdülhamid II). The feeling was mutual and the young prince asked for the help of his stepmother Rahime Perestu Kadin. She told Abdülaziz that Safinaz was ill and that she needed a change of air; later, Abdülaziz was informed of her death. Abdülhamid then married Safinaz, renamed Nurefsun, in secret, in October 1868. However, she could not get used to life in the harem and wanted to be Abdülhamid's only consort. She then asked for a divorce, which he was granted to her in 1879. She had no children.
• Bedrifelek Kadın (1851 - 1930). Circassian Princess who took refuge in Istanbul when Russia invaded the Caucasus. She ruled Abdülhamid II's harem when Rahime Perestu Sultan died. She left Abdülhamid when he was deposed, perhaps disappointed that their son had not been chosen as successor. She had two sons and a daughter.
• Bidar Kadın (5 May 1855 - 13 January 1918). Kabartian princess, she was considered the most beautiful and charming of Abdülhamid II's consorts. She had a son and a daughter.
• Dilpesend Kadın (16 January 1865 - 17 June 1901).Georgian. She was educated by Tiryal Hanim, last consort of Mahmud II, who was Abdülhamid II's grandfather. She had two daughters.
• Mezidemestan Kadın (3 March 1869 - 21 January 1909). She was born Kadriye Kamile Merve Hanim, she was the aunt of Emine Nazikeda Kadın, future consort of Mehmed VI. She was loved by everyone, including his other consorts and her stepchildren. She was the most influential of his consorts, but she never abused her power of hers. She had a son, Abdülhamid's favorite.
• Emsalinur Kadın (1866 - 1952). She entered at Palace with her sister Tesrid Hanım, who became a consort of Şehzade Ibrahim Tevfik. She was very beautiful. She did not follow Abdülhamid II into exile and died in poverty. She had a daughter.
• Destizer Müşfika Kadın (1872 - 18 July 1961). She was Abkhazian, born Ayşe Hanim. She grew up with her sister under the tutelage of Pertevniyal Sultan, mother of Sultan Abdülaziz, uncle of Abdülhamid II. She followed Abdülhamid into exile and was with him until his death, so much so that it is said that the sultan died in her arms. She had a daughter.
• Sazkar Hanım (8 May 1873 - 1945). She was a noble Abkhazian, born Fatma Zekiye Hanım. She was among the consorts who followed Abdülhamid II into exile, and later left Turkey with her daughter. She had a daughter.
• Peyveste Hanım (1873 - 1943). Abkhazian princess, born Hatice Rabia Hanim and aunt of Leyla Açba. She served Nazikeda Kadın with her sisters before and then became the treasurer of the harem. She was highly respected. She followed her husband into exile and then her son. She had a son.
• Pesend Hanım (13 February 1876 - 5 November 1924). Born princess Fatma Kadriye Achba, she was one of his favorite consorts, known for her kindness, charity and tolerance. She was one of the consorts who stayed with Abdülhamid II until his death and, on his death, she cut her hair and threw it into the sea as a sign of mourning. She had a daughter.
• Behice Hanım (10 October 1882 - 22 October 1969). She was Sazkar Hanım's cousin and her real name was Behiye Hanim. She was arrogant and proud, she initially she had to marry Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, son of Abdülhamid II, but in the end the sultan decided to marry her himself, against the will of Behice herself. She had two twin sons.
• Saliha Naciye Kadın (1887 - 1923). She was born Zeliha Ankuap and called also Atike Naciye Kadın. Known for her kindness and modesty, she was his favorite and among her consorts who stayed with him until his death. She had a son and a daughter.
• Dürdane Hanım (1867 - January 1957).
• Calibös Hanım (1880 - ?).
• Nazlıyar Hanım.

Abdülhamid II had at least eight sons:[63][59]

• Şehzade Mehmed Selim (11 January 1870 - 5 May 1937) - with Bedrifelek Kadın. He didn't get along with his father. He had eight consorts, two sons and a daughter.
• Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (16 January 1878 - 16 March 1944) - with Bidar Kadın. He had seven consorts, five sons and two daughters.
• Şehzade Ahmed Nuri (12 February 1878 - 7 August 1944) - with Bedrifelek Kadın. He had a consort but no child.
• Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (19 December 1885 - 15 June 1949) - with Mezidemestan Kadın. He had four consorts and two sons.
• Şehzade Abdürrahim Hayri (15 August 1894 - 1 January 1952) - with Peyveste Hanım. He had two consorts, a son and a daughter.
• Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (June 22, 1901 - December 1944) - with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin. He had a consort and a son.
• Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin (22 June 1901 - 13 October 1903) - with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin. Born in Yıldız Palace. He died of meningitis and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
• Şehzade Mehmed Abid (May 17, 1905 - December 8, 1973) - with Saliha Naciye Kadın. He had two consorts but no children.

Abdülhamid II had at least 13 daughters:[63][59]

• Ulviye Sultan (1868 - 5 October 1875) - with Nazikeda Kadın. Born in Dolmabahçe Palace, she died at the age of seven in an extremely tragic way: while her mother played the piano and their servants were dismissed for the meal, Ulviye Sultan began to play with matches or candles. Her dress caught fire and her gold belt trapped her inside it, even though her mother burned her hands trying to unhook it. In panic, Nazikeda picked up her daughter and ran down the stairs, screaming for help, but the movement fueled the flames and Ulviye Sultan died burnt alive, leaving her mother in total despair, from which she never recovered. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
• Zekiye Sultan (12 January 1872 - 13 July 1950) - with Bedrifelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters. She was one of Abdülhamid's favorite daughters.
• Fatma Naime Sultan (5 September 1876 - 1945) - with Bidar Kadın. She is the favorite daughter of Abdülhamid II, who called her "my accession daughter", because she was born close to the date of his accession to the throne. She married twice and had a son and a daughter. In 1904 she was embroiled in a scandal when she discovered that her first husband was cheating on her with her cousin Hatice Sultan, daughter of Murad V.
• Naile Sultan (9 February 1884 - 25 October 1957) - with Dilpesend Kadın. She married once, with no children.
• Seniye Sultan (1884 - 1884) - unknown motherhood.
• Seniha Sultan (1885 - 1885) - with Dilpesend Kadın. She died at five months.
• Şadiye Sultan (30 November 1886 - 20 November 1977) - with Emsalinur Kadın. She married twice and had a daughter.
• Hamide Ayşe Sultan (15 November 1887 - 10 August 1960) - with Müşfika Kadın. She was married twice and had three sons and a daughter.
• Refia Sultan (15 June 1891 - 1938) - with Sazkar Hanım. She married once and had two daughters.
• Hatice Sultan (10 July 1897 - 14 February 1898) - with Pesend Hanım. She died of smallpox, buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
• Aliye Sultan (1900 - 1900) - unknown motherhood. She died a few days after her birth.
• Cemile Sultan (1900 - 1900) - unknown maternity. She died a few days after her birth.
• Samiye Sultan (16 January 1908 - 24 January 1909) - with Saliha Naciye Kadın. She died of pneumonia, buried in the mausoleum Şehzade Ahmed Kemaleddin in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.

• Abdul Hamid II Biography
• All Documents about Abdul Hamid in English from a Turkish Web Site Archived 23 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Overy, Richard. The Times Complete History of the World, HarperCollins ISBN 978-0007315697 (2010)