Timeline of Cuban history

This is a timeline of Cuban history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Cuba and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of Cuba. See also the list of colonial governors of Cuba and list of presidents of Cuba.

15th century
YearDateEvent
149227 OctoberChristopher Columbus arrives in Cuba and claims the island for Spain.

16th century
YearDateEvent
1508Sebastián de Ocampo circumnavigates Cuba, confirming that it is an island.
1510Spanish set out from Hispaniola. The conquest of Cuba begins.
1511The first governor of Cuba, the Spanish conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar leads a group of settlers in Baracoa.
1512Indigenous Cuban resistance leader Hatuey is burned at the stake.
1519Havana founded as San Cristóbal de la Habana (north coast)
1523Emperor Charles V authorizes 4,000 gold pesos for the construction of cotton mills.
1527The first African slaves arrive in Cuba.
1532The first slave rebellion is crushed.
1537A French fleet briefly occupies Havana.
French corsairs blockade Santiago de Cuba.
1542The Spanish crown abandons the encomienda colonial land settlement system.
1553The Governor of Cuba relocates to Havana.
1555French campaign against the Sudan usam
1578French corsairs plunder Baracoa.
1586The English privateer Francis Drake lands at Cape San Antonio but does not attack.
1597Construction of the Morro Castle fortress is completed above the eastern entrance to Havana harbor.

17th century
YearDateEvent
1603Authorities decree that the sale of tobacco to foreigners is punishable by death.
1607Havana is named capital of Cuba.
1628A Dutch fleet led by Piet Heyn plunders the Spanish fleet in Havana harbor.
1649An epidemic of yellow fever kills a third of the island's European population.[1]
1662An English fleet captained by Christopher Myngs captures Santiago de Cuba to open up trade with Jamaica.
1670The English withdraw after Spain recognises England's ownership of Jamaica.
Francisco Rodríguez de Ledesma becomes Governor of Cuba. He serves for ten years.

18th century
YearDateEvent
1728The University of Havana is founded.
1734Juan Francisco de Güemes begins a 12-year tenure as Governor of Cuba.
1741British Admiral Edward Vernon briefly captures Guantánamo Bay, renaming it Cumberland Bay, during the War of Jenkins' Ear. His troops withdraw after being decimated by fevers and raids from Spanish troops.
1747Francisco Cajigal de la Vega begins a 13-year tenure as Governor of Cuba.
1748Construction of Havana cathedral is completed.
12 OctoberBattle of Havana. Skirmishes between British and Spanish fleets end indecisively on a strategic level.
17625 MarchA massive British expedition leaves Portsmouth to capture Havana.
30 JulyBritish troops capture Havana during the Seven Years' War.
1763British troops suffer atrocious losses to disease. They cede Cuba to Spain in the Treaty of Paris.
1793Some 30,000 French refugees from a slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue, which becomes the Haitian revolution, arrive in Cuba.
1799Salvador de Muro y Salazar becomes Governor of Cuba 1799–1812.

19th century
YearDateEvent
1812Juan Ruíz de Apodaca becomes governor of Cuba 1812–17.
181922 AprilSettlers from Bordeaux and Louisiana found the first European settlement at Cienfuegos.
1843Leopoldo O'Donnell, Duke of Tetuan becomes governor of Cuba 1843–48.
1844Known as the Year of the Lash, when an uprising of black slaves was brutally suppressed.
1851The filibustering Lopez Expedition was defeated by Spanish authorities.
185328 JanuaryJosé Martí is born in Havana.
1868The first war of Cuban independence, also known as the Ten Years' War, begins. It lasts until 1878.
10 OctoberRevolutionaries under the leadership of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes proclaim Cuban independence.
186910 AprilAn assembly of rebels against Spanish rule adopts the Guáimaro Constitution, which remains nominally in effect until the end of the Ten Years' War.[2]
187810 FebruaryThe Pact of Zanjón, promising the end of slavery in Cuba, ends the Ten Years' War.
1879AugustA second uprising ("The Little War"), engineered by Antonio Maceo and Calixto García, begins. It is quelled by superior Spanish forces in the autumn of 1880.
1886October 7Slavery is abolished in Cuba.
189524 FebruaryThe Cuban revolution is relaunched under the leadership of José Martí and General Máximo Gómez.
19 MayJosé Martí is killed by Spanish troops at the Battle of Dos Ríos.
SeptemberSpanish Captain-General Arsenio Martínez Campos is defeated at Peralejo and leaves Cuba in January 1896.
1896Cuban rebels led by Antonio Maceo and Máximo Gómez execute a successful invasion along the length of the island. Maceo is killed by Spanish forces in December.
1897Calixto Garcia takes a series of strategic fort complexes in the East, leaving the Spanish confined to coastal cities there.
189815 FebruaryThe battleship USS Maine explodes and sinks while anchored in Havana harbor.
10 DecemberThe Treaty of Paris between Spain and the U.S. ends the Spanish–American War. Spain relinquishes sovereignty over Cuba.
18991 JanuaryThe Spanish colonial government withdraws and the last captain General Alfonso Jimenez Castellano hands over power to the North American Military Governor, General John Ruller Brooke.
23 DecemberLeonard Wood becomes U.S. Provisional Governor of Cuba.

20th century
YearDateEvent
19015 MarchThe U.S. Platt Amendment stipulates the conditions for the withdrawal of U.S. troops.
12 JuneThe Constitutional Convention adopts the 1901 Constitution in its final form, including the provisions of the Platt Amendment.
190220 MayThe Cuban Republic is established under the 1901 Constitution. Tomás Estrada Palma takes office as president.
190629 SeptemberUnder attack from defeated political rivals, President Tomás Estrada Palma seeks U.S. intervention and U.S. troops reoccupy Cuba under Provisional Governor William Howard Taft.
13 OctoberCharles Magoon becomes Provisional Governor of Cuba
190928 JanuaryU.S. occupation ends. José Miguel Gómez of the Liberal Party becomes president.
1912May–JuneThe Gómez government suppresses the Negro Rebellion, a revolt on the part of Afro-Cubans.
191320 MayThe presidency of Mario García Menocal begins.
19187 AprilCuba enters World War I on the side of the Allies. Upon Menocal's reelection, José Miguel Gómez and other Liberals launch a revolt known as the Chambelona War. The U.S. intervenes on behalf of Menocal's government.
192120 MayAlfredo Zayas becomes president.
192523 MarchBy the Hay-Quesada Treaty, the U.S. recognizes Cuban sovereignty over the Isle of Pines.
20 MayGerardo Machado becomes president.
192613 AugustFidel Castro is born in the province of Holguín.
192810 JanuaryJulio Antonio Mella, a founder of the Communist Party in Cuba, is murdered in Mexico.
14 JuneErnesto Guevara de la Serna, known as Che Guevara, is born in Rosario, Argentina.
193110 AugustOld Mambi warriors Carlos Mendieta and Mario García Menocal land forces at Rio Verde in an attempt to overthrow Gerardo Machado. They are defeated by 14 August in military operations that include the first use of military aviation in Cuba.
193312 AugustGerardo Machado is forced to leave Cuba in the face of violent opposition on the part of ABC and Antonio Guiteras Holmes, a general strike, and pressure from senior officers of Cuban Armed Forces and U.S. Ambassador Sumner Welles. A provisional government is established, with Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada as president.
4 SeptemberA group of military officers that includes Fulgencio Batista launches the Sergeants' Revolt and topples the provisional government.
5 SeptemberThe five-day, five-man coalition government called the Pentarchy of 1933 lasted through Sept. 9.
10 SeptemberRamón Grau (one of the pentarchy) becomes president and continues the One Hundred Days Government.
2 OctoberEnlisted men and sergeants loyal to Batista, joined by radical elements, force Army Officers from the Hotel Nacional in heavy fighting.
9 NovemberBlas Hernández, his followers, and some ABC members make a stand in old Atarés Castle. They are defeated by Batista loyalists. Hernández surrenders and is murdered.
1934January 16The One Hundred Days Government ends; Carlos Hevia serves briefly as president.
January 18Manuel Márquez Sterling is president for a few hours, followed by Carlos Mendieta.
16 JuneABC holds a demonstration at the Havana festival and its march is attacked by radical forces, including those of Antonio Guiteras.
19358 MayLeading radical Antonio Guiteras is betrayed and dies fighting Batista forces.
1938SeptemberThe Communist party is legalized again.
194010 OctoberThe 1940 Constitution, signed by the members of the Constitutional Assembly on 1 July, takes effect. It is suspended in 1952.
19419–11 DecemberCuba declares war on Japan, Germany, and Italy.[3]
1943The Soviet Union opens an embassy in Havana. Its first ambassador is Andrei Gromyko.[4]
19515 AugustEduardo Chibás, leader of the Ortodoxo party and mentor of Fidel Castro, commits suicide during a live radio broadcast.
195210 MarchFormer president Batista, supported by the army, seizes power once more. Ex-president Prío exiled to Miami, US.
195326 JulySome 160 revolutionaries under the command of Fidel Castro launch an attack on the Moncada barracks in Santiago de Cuba and Cespedes barracks in Bayamo
16 OctoberOn trial for his role in the attack on the Moncada barracks, Fidel Castro defends himself with a speech later published as "History Will Absolve Me".
1954SeptemberChe Guevara arrives in Mexico City.
NovemberBatista dissolves parliament and is elected constitutional president unopposed.
1955MayBatista issues an amnesty that frees Fidel and other members of his movement from prison.
JuneBrothers Fidel and Raúl Castro are introduced to Che Guevara in Mexico City.
195629 AprilAutentico Assault on Goicuria Barracks in Matanzas fails.[5][6]
NovemberThe yacht Granma sets out from Mexico to Cuba with 82 men on board, including Raúl Castro, Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos.
2 DecemberThe Granma lands in Oriente Province.
195717 JanuaryCastro's guerrillas score their first success by sacking an army outpost on the south coast, and start gaining followers in both Cuba and abroad.
13 MarchUniversity students mount an attack on the Presidential Palace in Havana. Batista forewarned. Attackers mostly killed, others flee and are betrayed.
28 MayCastro's 26 July movement, reinforced by militia led by Frank Pais, overwhelm an army post in El Uvero.
19 JulyCalixto Sánchez White leads a landing from the boat Corinthia at Cabonico in north Oriente of Auténtico and are defeated.
30 JulyLocal police kill Frank País, a leader of the 26 July movement, in the streets of Santiago de Cuba.
5 SeptemberForces loyal to Batista crush a naval revolt at Cayo Loco Naval Base in Cienfuegos.[7]
1958FebruaryRaúl Castro takes leadership of about 500 pre-existing Escopeteros guerrillas and opens a front in the Sierra de Cristal on Oriente's north coast.
13 MarchU.S. suspends shipments of arms to Batista's forces.
17 MarchCastro calls for a general revolt.
9 AprilA general strike, organized by the 26 July movement, is partially observed.
MayBatista sends an army of 10,000 into the Sierra Maestra to destroy Castro's 300 armed guerrillas and their supporters. By August, the rebels had defeated the army's advance and captured a huge amount of weaponry.
20–30 NovemberThirty key positions at Guisa are taken. In the following month most cities in Oriente fall to rebel hands.
DecemberGuevara, William Alexander Morgan, and forces of the Directorio Revolucionario Estudiantil, an organization of university students, attack Santa Clara.
28 DecemberRebel forces take Santa Clara.
31 DecemberCamilo Cienfuegos leads revolutionary guerrillas to victory in Yaguajay; Huber Matos enters Santiago.
19591 JanuaryPresident Batista resigns and flees the country. Fidel Castro's column enters Santiago de Cuba. The revolutionaries starts military tribunals of captured military, with some receiving the death penalty. Various urban rebels, mainly associated with Directorio, seize Havana

Cuban revolutionaries call a General Strike to ensure governmental control[8]

2 JanuaryGuevara and Camilo Cienfuegos arrive in Havana.
5 JanuaryManuel Urrutia named President of Cuba
8 JanuaryFidel Castro arrives at Havana, speaks to crowds at Camp Columbia.
16 FebruaryFidel Castro becomes Premier of Cuba.
MarchFabio Grobart is present at a series of meetings with Castro brothers, Guevara and Valdes at Cojimar
20 AprilFidel Castro speaks at Princeton University, New Jersey.[9]
17 MayThe Cuban government enacts the Agrarian Reform Law, seizing large (mostly corporate and foreign) holdings of agricultural land and redistributing it to smaller land owners. The new holdings are limited to 1,000 acres (4.0 km2).
17 JulyOsvaldo Dorticós Torrado becomes President of Cuba, replacing Manuel Urrutia, who is forced to resign by Fidel Castro. Dorticós serves until 2 December 1976
28 OctoberPlane carrying Camilo Cienfuegos disappears during a night flight from Camagüey to Havana. He is presumed dead.
11 DecemberTrial of revolutionary Huber Matos begins. Matos is found guilty of "treason and sedition".
19604 MarchThe French freighter La Coubre explodes while unloading in Havana harbor, and Fidel Castro calls it sabotage by the U.S. on 5 March.[10]
17 MarchU.S. President Dwight Eisenhower orders CIA director Allen Dulles to train Cuban exiles for a covert invasion of Cuba.
6 AprilU.S. Secretary of State Lester Mallory outlines objectives of embargo in a memo: "...inconspicuous as possible, makes the greatest inroads in denying money and supplies to Cuba, to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government."[11]
5 JulyAll U.S. businesses and commercial property in Cuba are nationalized at the direction of the Cuban government.
19 OctoberU.S. imposes embargo prohibiting all exports to Cuba except foodstuffs and medical supplies.
31 OctoberCuban nationalization of all U.S. property in Cuba is completed.
26 DecemberOperation Peter Pan (Operación Pedro Pan) begins, an operation transporting to the U.S. 14,000 children of parents opposed to the new government. The scheme continues until U.S. airports are closed to Cuban flights during 1962.
1961U.S. trade embargo on Cuba.
1 JanuaryCuban government initiates national literacy scheme.
MarchFormer rebel comandante Humberto Sorí Marin and Catholic leaders shot.
15 AprilBay of Pigs invasion.
18 AprilNikita Khrushchev writes to John F. Kennedy to end U.S. aggression against Cuba.[12]
196231 JanuaryCuba expelled from the Organization of American States.
17 AugustCentral Intelligence Agency Director John McCone suggests that the Soviet Union is constructing offensive missile installations in Cuba.
29 AugustAt a news conference, U.S. President John F. Kennedy tells reporters: "I'm not for invading Cuba at this time... an action like that... could lead to very serious consequences for many people."
31 AugustPresident Kennedy is informed that the 29 August U-2 mission confirms the presence of surface-to-air missile batteries in Cuba.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)16 OctoberMcGeorge Bundy informs President Kennedy that evidence shows Soviet medium-range ballistic missiles in Cuba. Kennedy immediately gathers a group that becomes known as "ExComm," the Executive Committee of the National Security Council.
22 OctoberPresident Kennedy addresses the nation on television, announcing a blockade on arms shipments to Cuba.
23 OctoberU.S. establishes air and sea blockade in response to photographs of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba. U.S. threatens to invade Cuba if the bases are not dismantled and warns that a nuclear attack launched from Cuba would be considered a Soviet attack requiring full retaliation.
28 OctoberKhrushchev agrees to remove offensive weapons from Cuba, and the U.S. agrees to remove missiles from Turkey and promises not to invade Cuba.
196221 NovemberU.S. ends Cuban blockade, satisfied that all bases are removed and Soviet jets will leave the island by 20 December.
1963October2nd Agrarian reform.
NovemberCompulsory military service introduced.
1964OAS enforce embargo against Cuba.
19653 OctoberThe Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI) become the governing Communist Party of Cuba.
28 SeptemberFidel announces Cubans can emigrate, which launches the Camarioca boatlift and airlift.[13]
19679 OctoberChe Guevara executed in La Higuera, Bolivia.
1968MarchAll private bars and restaurants are finally closed down.
1972Cuba becomes a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).
1974Maternity leave bill introduced by the Cuban government.
1975The Soviet Union engages in a massive airlift of Cuban forces into Angola.
The Family Code bill establishes the official goal of equal participation in the home.
JulyOAS lifts the trade embargo and other sanctions.
1976MarchSouth African forces backing the UNITA rebel force withdraw from Angola. It is regarded as a victory for Cuban forces.
15 FebruaryA referendum endorses the 1976 Constitution, which institutionalizes the principles of the Cuban Revolution. It takes effect of 24 February.
6 OctoberTwo time bombs destroy Cubana Flight 455 departing from Barbados, via Trinidad, to Cuba. Evidence implicated several CIA-linked anti-Castro Cuban exiles and members of the Venezuelan secret police DISIP.
2 DecemberFidel Castro becomes President of Cuba.
19771 JanuaryPolitical and administrative division divides Cuba into fourteen provinces, 168 municipalities and the special municipality of Isla de la Juventud.
MayFifty Cuban military personnel sent to Ethiopia.[14]
197921 OctoberHuber Matos is released from prison after serving out his full term.[15]
1980April–OctoberThe Mariel Boatlift. Cuban authorities allow up to 125,000 people to depart Cuba by boat from Mariel harbor for the U.S. The Cuban and U.S. governments agree to halt the exodus in October.
7 JuneU.S. President Jimmy Carter orders the U.S. Justice Department to expel any Cubans who committed "serious crimes" in Cuba.[16]
198325 OctoberUnited States invades the island of Grenada and clash with Cuban troops.[17]
1984Cuba reduces its troop strength in Ethiopia to approximately 3,000 from 12,000.
1987Law #62 on the Penal Code introduced recognising discrimination based on any reason and the violation of the right of equality as a crime.
198912 JulyProminent general in the Cuban armed forces Arnaldo Ochoa is executed after allegations of involvement in drug smuggling.
17 SeptemberThe last Cuban troops leave Ethiopia.
199023 MarchThe U.S. launches TV Marti.
1991MayCuba removed all troops from Angola.
26 DecemberSpecial Period: The Soviet Union (Cuba's closest economic partner) formally dissolved, leading to a full loss of economic and military aid, causing a prolonged economic crisis through the 1990s.
1992JulyThe National Assembly of Cuba passes the Constitutional Reform Law allowing for direct elections to the assembly by the Cuban people every five years.[18]
19936 NovemberThe Cuban government opens state enterprises to private investment.
19945 AugustMaleconazo: Protests break out in Havana due to economic hardships amidst the Special Period.
1996FebruaryCuban authorities arrest or detain at least 150 dissidents, marking the most widespread crackdown on opposition groups since the early 1960s.
24 FebruaryCuban fighter jets shoot down two US-registered civilian aircraft over international waters, killing four men.
12 MarchIn the U.S., the Helms-Burton Act extends the U.S. embargo against Cuba to foreign companies.
199821 JanuaryPope John Paul II becomes the first Pope to visit the island.
1999Christian anti-abortion activist Oscar Elías Biscet is detained by Cuban police for organizing meetings in Havana and Matanzas.
5 NovemberSix-year/old Elián González is found clinging to an inner tube in the Straits of Florida.
200014 DecemberRussian President Vladimir Putin visits Cuba and signs accords aimed at boosting bilateral ties.

21st century
200123 JuneFidel Castro almost faints following a televised speech.
2002JanuaryRussia's last military base in Cuba, at Lourdes, closes.
6 MayU.S. Under Secretary of State John R. Bolton accuses Cuba of trying to develop biological weapons, adding the country to Washington's list of "axis of evil" countries.
12 MayFormer U.S. President Jimmy Carter visits Cuba. He praises the Varela project and criticizes the U.S. embargo.
2003AprilThe Cuban government arrests 78 writers and dissidents, blaming U.S. provocation and interference from James Cason, the chief of the United States Interests Section in Havana.
200520 MayAround 200 dissidents hold a public meeting, which its organizers call the first such gathering since the 1959 revolution.[19]
7 JulyHurricane Dennis causes widespread destruction in Cuba and leaves 16 people dead.
200631 JulyRaúl Castro assumes the duties of president of Cuba while Fidel Castro recovers from an emergency operation.
200819 FebruaryFidel Castro resigns as President of Cuba.[20]
24 FebruaryRaúl is elected President by the National Assembly.[21]
201417 DecemberCuban Thaw: U.S. President Barack Obama and Raúl Castro re-establish diplomatic ties between the two countries.[22]
201620 MarchU.S. President Barack Obama begins a three-day visit to Cuba.[23]
25 NovemberThe death of Fidel Castro is announced. "The commander in chief of the Cuban revolution died at 22:29 hours this evening [03:29 GMT 25 November]."
201716 JuneU.S. President Donald Trump cancels the previous administration's diplomatic agreements with Cuba, ending the Cuban Thaw.
201819 AprilMiguel Díaz-Canel succeeds Raul Castro as President of the Council of State and Council of Ministers, becoming the first non-Castro leader of the country since the Cuban Revolution.
202011 MarchCuba confirms its first case of COVID-19.[24]
202111-17 JulyThe most largest protest against the Cuban communist government since 1959 breaks out due to shortages amidst the severe crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, before being suppressed by the government.
202225 SeptemberCuba holds a referendum on amending the Family Code of the Constitution, legalizing same-sex marriage and adoption. The referendum is passed with 66.85% of votes in favor.

See also
Cities in Cuba

References
  1. Cumo, Christopher (25 February 2015). The Ongoing Columbian Exchange: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-796-5.
  2. Hernández, Jose M. (1993). Cuba and the United States: Intervention and Militarism, 1868-1933. University of Texas Press. pp. 7–11. ISBN 9780292788794. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  3. Thomas, Hugh (2013). Cuba: A History. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780718192921. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  4. Gromyko, Andrei (1989). Memoirs. Doubleday. p. 89.
  5. "1956: Goicuria garrison Attack; Prio exiled". 5 May 2009. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  6. Bonachea, Ramon L.; Martin, Marta San (31 December 2011). Cuban Insurrection 1952-1959. ISBN 9781412820905.
  7. "Cuban Navy Men Revolt; Reported Routed by Army" (PDF). New York Times. 6 September 1957. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  8. Cooke, Alistair (2 January 1959). "Castro in control of Cuba". www.theguardian.com. The Guardian. | 1950-1959 | Guardian Century Archives. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  9. Dr. Castro's Princeton Visit Archived 6 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine, 20–21 April 1959 by Thomas E. Bogenschild
  10. Phillips, R. Hart (6 March 1960). "Castro Links U.S. to Ship 'Sabotage'; Denial is Swift" (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
  11. "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Cuba, Volume VI - Office of the Historian". Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  12. "End U.S. Aggression Against the Republic of Cuba". Archived from the original on 1 July 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  13. Engstrom, David Wells (1997). Presidential Decision Making Adrift: The Carter Administration and the Mariel Boatlift. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 24ff. ISBN 9780847684144. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
  14. Gwertzman, Bernard (26 May 1977). "50 Cuban Advisers Reported Training Troops in Ethiopia" (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  15. Thomas, Jo (24 October 1979). "Freed Cuban Tells of Time Spent in a 'Concrete Box' Underground" (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  16. Pear, Robert (8 June 1980). "Carter Orders Move to Expel Criminals Among the Refugees" (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  17. Kaufman, Michael T. (26 October 1983). "1,900 U.S. Troops, with Ceribbean Allies, Invade Grenada and Fight". New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  18. Cuba : Elections and Events 1990–2001 Archived 7 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  19. "Cuban dissidents rally in Havana". CNN. 20 May 2005. Archived from the original on 10 March 2006. Retrieved 5 October 2006.
  20. McKinley, Jr., James C. (19 February 2008). "Do Not Rank". New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  21. McKinley, Jr., James C. (25 February 2008). "At Cuba Helm, Castro Brother Stays the Course". New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  22. "Historic thaw in U.S., Cuba standoff". CNN. 17 December 2014. Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  23. Davis, Julie Hirschfeld; Cave, Damien (20 March 2016). "Obama Arrives in Cuba, Heralding New Era After Decades of Hostility". New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  24. "Cuba confirms 1st coronavirus cases, urges citizens to make own masks". Reuters. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.

Bibliography
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