Tkhine

Women were excluded from much of Jewish religious life and were not required to perform the commandments Jewish law requires of men. Women were not obligated to attend synagogue services and their presence did not count towards the minyan required for public prayer, thus Jewish prayer, being of a communal nature, excluded women. Due to the religious requirement to separate men and women during prayer services, women sat in a designated section that was often physically separate from the men and were not permitted to take an active role in the service. Where men are required to pray three times a day during specific times, women are required solely to pray once a day, with no further specifications. The rationale for this difference is that men are obligated to fulfill time-bound commandments such as praying at certain times whereas women are exempt from time-bound commandments in general.

However, the biggest disparity between men's and women's religious roles under Jewish law was unequal access to education. Girls were often educated at home, while boys went to school. Nevertheless, there was a high level of literacy within the Jewish community for millennia. Girls learned the basic Hebrew reading but were often more fluent in Yiddish than in Hebrew, the language of Jewish prayer and traditional Jewish texts. Boys, on the other hand, were ideally expected to read and understand Hebrew fluently, although many of them did not. Additionally, only men were able to attend higher-level institutions called yeshivas that allowed them to study Jewish religious literature in a scholarly setting. Women had access to this formal education only if they were born into wealthy or scholarly families. Most women therefore only spoke the Jewish vernacular of Yiddish and were not able to access much of religious literature nor understand those prayers that were available to them.[5][6] Thus, women would often recite a prayer without understanding it. This lack of kavone, or spiritual depth and sincerity,[7] concerned some rabbis in the sixteenth century, who then took it upon themselves to translate some Hebrew prayers and the Bible into Yiddish for the benefit of women and "uneducated men."[8] The first of these Yiddish prayers was printed in 1590 in Prague as a small pamphlet containing five prayers that were also printed in Hebrew.[9] From this expansion of religious literature into the Yiddish language, other Yiddish prayers began to be published in collections, and both the prayers themselves and the collections which contained them came to be called tkhines.[10] Tkhines are supplicatory prayers, written in Yiddish, that illuminate the lives of Jewish women and reflect what they might have been thinking as they performed religious duties and household tasks. There are two main categories of tkhines: those found in Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and those found in Easter Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. Tkhines found in Western Europe were written by men for women, while those from Eastern Europe were mostly reworked by women. [11]

In contrast to Hebrew prayers and devotions, tkhines were written specifically for women. Tkhines are also distinct because they were personal and meant to be an individual experience, as opposed to the communal experience of Hebrew prayer. They often addressed women's home life, issues related to marriage and childbirth, and her religious responsibilities, including a woman's mitzvot, which pertain to the preparation of challah, niddah, and hadlakah (lighting candles on the eve of the Sabbath and Holy Days).[19][20]

Because they were writing in the vernacular as opposed to the holy language of Hebrew, authors felt more open to talking freely, and often spoke directly to God as a friend using the familiar form of 'you', something unheard of in the official and impersonal Hebrew liturgy. Authors also referenced Hebrew scripture and Aramaic texts, often naming Biblical characters, usually the matriarchs, and including stories from the Talmud or Midrash.[21]

Although tkhines were almost always from a woman's point of view, many were written by men. Male authors would often write under a female pseudonym or the name of another popular female tkhine author, mainly for commercial benefit, making the true authorship of many tkhines unknown. In addition to this, many authors chose to sign off anonymously, using phrases such as "isha tsnue" (a modest woman) or "groyse tsdeykes" (a distinguished pious woman), and most tkhines didn't include an author's name at all.[23][3] However, women were not only writers, but were also involved in both the creative and practical processes of publishing, working as printers, translators, editors, adaptors of existing literary works, copyists and even typesetters.

Due to a lack of rules and regulations as far as whose name was included on the final work, the author of the original tkhine may be left off in favor of the editor, printer, copyist, or typesetter, who would instead attach their own name to the work. Additionally, during the height of tkhine popularity, tkhines were reprinted multiple times to be included into different collections. Many times, the original name attached to the tkhine was either left off or reattributed to either the adaptor or the compiler of the collection, or someone else entirely. Thus, many tkhines are attributed to different authors depending on the collection.[6]

Some authors indicated ownership through the tkhine itself by including an acrostic, where the first letter of each line or verse would spell out the author's name.[6]

Many female tkhine authors were daughters of rabbis, as they were often the only women who had access to religious education,[23][3] including the most well-known tkhine author, Sarah Bas Tovim, and two other known authors, Leah Horowitz and Leah Dreyzl.[24]

• Jewish prayer
• Women in Judaism

• Klirs, Tracy Guren. et al. The Merit of Our Mothers : a Bilingual Anthology of Jewish Women’s Prayers / Compiled and Introduced by Tracy Guren Klirs  (1992) ISBN 0-87820-505-5
• Tarnor, Norman. A Book of Jewish Women’s Prayers : Translations from the Yiddish / Selected and with Commentary by Norman Tarnor (1995) ISBN 1-56821-298-4
• Kay, Devra. Seyder Tkhines : the Forgotten Book of Common Prayer for Jewish Women / Translated and Edited, with Commentary by Devra Kay. (2004) ISBN 0-8276-0773-3

• Weissler, Chava. Voices of the Matriarchs : Listening to the Prayers of Early Modern Jewish Women / Chava Weissler. Boston, Mass: Beacon Press, 1998. Print. ISBN 0-8070-3616-1
• Kay, Devra. Seyder Tkhines : the Forgotten Book of Common Prayer for Jewish Women / Translated and Edited, with Commentary by Devra Kay. First edition. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2004. Print. ISBN 0-8276-0773-3
• Baumel-Schwartz, Judy Tydor. “My Grandmother’s Tkhine: Immigrant Jewish Women’s Lives, Identities and Prayers in Early Twentieth-Century America.” Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women’s Studies & Gender Issues 31.1 (2017): 146–168. Web.
• Tarnor, Norman. A Book of Jewish Women’s Prayers : Translations from the Yiddish / Selected and with Commentary by Norman Tarnor. Northvale, N.J: Jason Aronson, 1995. Print. ISBN 1-56821-298-4
• Klirs, Tracy Guren. et al. The Merit of Our Mothers = [Bizkhus̀ Imohes̀] : a Bilingual Anthology of Jewish Women’s Prayers / Compiled and Introduced by Tracy Guren Klirs ; Translated by Tracy Guren Klirs, Ida Cohen Selavan, and Gella Schweid Fishman ; Annotated by Faedra Lazar Weiss and Barbara Selya. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1992. Print. ISBN 0-87820-505-5