Principality of Tver

Execution of Mikhail at the Golden Horde, by Vasily Vereshchagin.

In the 1230s or the 1240s, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the grand prince of Vladimir, detached the city of Tver from the Pereyaslavl-Zalessky principality (where it previously belonged), and gave it to his son Alexander Nevsky.[5] In 1246, another son of Yaroslav, Yaroslav of Tver, became the prince of Tver, and the principality was ruled by his descendants until 1485, when it was abolished.[4] In 1264, Yaroslav was appointed the grand prince of Vladimir, which at the time meant he was the supreme authority of all of today's northwest Russia. In the 13th century, the Principality of Tver was less dependent from the Golden Horde than other Russian principalities were, and its population grew up.[5] The combination of these two factors led to the rivalry between Tver and Moscow, each of which were trying to become the most influential Russian principality.

In 1285, Mikhail of Tver, a son of Yaroslav of Tver, succeeded his father and became the Prince of Tver. In 1305 he became the Grand Prince of Vladimir as well, however, Özbeg Khan of the Golden Horde decided that Tver became too strong, and supported Moscow against Tver. Mikhail was summoned to the Golden Horde and executed there in 1318. His son and successor, Dmitry of Tver, was executed in the Golden Horde in 1326, and another son and also a prince of Tver, Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver, was executed there in 1339 as well together with his son Fyodor. In 1327, there was an anti-Tatar uprising in the Principality of Tver, which was suppressed. The city of Tver was burned down, and the principality lost a considerable part of its population. Tver never recovered from that, and eventually Moscow, which managed to remain on good terms with Tatars, absorbed all surrounding principalities and eventually became the capital of Russia.[5] In the 14th century, some parts of the principality were temporarily given away as appanage. This created the whole system of principalities dependent on Tver. These included Kashin, Kholm, and Zubtsov. Some of them became independent to the point that they conducted war with Tver.[5]

During the Great Troubles (1359–1381), the Golden Horde descended into a war of succession which weakened it internally and externally, allowing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Algirdas (Olgerd) to score a major victory at the Battle of Blue Waters (1362/3).[6] Thereafter, Tver sided with Lithuania against Moscow in the Lithuanian–Muscovite War (1368–1372).[6] In 1371, Mikhail II of Tver was the last prince of Tver ever appointed as the grand prince of Vladimir. The reign of Mikhail is usually considered as the last period when Tver still could rival Moscow and oppose the Golden Horde. When Algirdas sued for peace with Moscow and retreated in 1372, Tver swifted its allegiance to the powerful Mongol warlord Mamai.[6] In 1375, Mamai again granted Mikhail II the yarlik of grand prince of Vladimir.[7] But the same year, a Muscovite-led expedition besieged Tver for four weeks, forcing Mikhail to sign a treaty recognising Dmitry Donskoy as his "elder brother" and the rightful grand prince of Vladimir, and to pledge military support in the case of a conflict.[8][9]

  Principality of Tver in the 14th century, during the Great Troubles

However, no troops of Tver were sent to reinforce Dmitry Donskoy's anti-Mamai coalition at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[8][10] The symbolic victory had little practical effect, as Tokhtamysh defeated and killed Mamai at the Battle of the Kalka River in 1381, causing Dmitry Donskoy to flee and leaving the Muscovites to their fate when Tokhamysh besieged and sacked Moscow in 1382.[11] In the face of this violent repression, the princes of Tver, Nizhny Novgorod and others immediately submitted to Tokhtamysh.[12] Dmitry of Moscow did so as well, minting coins after 1382 stating proudly "Grand Prince Dimitry Ivanovich" on one side, but submissively "Sultan Tokhtamysh: Long may he live" on the other.[12] Thus, Moscow was still not able to command Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, the Novgorod Republic or Ryazan in the aftermath of Kulikovo and the sack of Moscow.[13]

In the early 15th century, the power of the Golden Horde was waning, while Lithuania rapidly gained strength.[14] Initially pushed back in 1399 at the Battle of the Vorskla River when he sought to expand Lithuanian control over the Pskov and Novgorod republics,[15] Vytautas (Vitovt) gained direct control over Smolensk (1404), indirect control over certain Novgorodian holdings (1408, 1428), an alliance with Boris of Tver (1427) and Ryazan (1430), and considerable influence over the Muscovite court as Vasily I's father-in-law between 1406 and 1430.[16] When the Muscovite War of Succession (1425–1453) broke out, the principalities of Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Ryazan, Novgorod and Pskov were all still independent of Moscow, and usually in alliance with Lithuania against Moscow, which however did have more territory and resources than the other northeastern Rus' principalities by 1425.[17]

In the subsequent 1425–1533 period, the Daniilovichi nevertheless managed to gain the economic and military overhand, switch the order of dynastic succession from the chaotic horizontal to vertical inheritance, reincorporate all Suzdalian appanages, and during wars with Lithuania even annex Ryazan, Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk into the Muscovite realm.[18] In the 1470s, Mikhail III of Tver had to sign a number of treaties with Moscow (ruled by Ivan III of Russia) which essentially discriminated against Tver. When Mikhail II tried to compensate for the treaties by seeking an alliance with Lithuania, the army of Ivan III swiftly conquered Tver in 1485. The principality was then annexed by Muscovy.[19][5] Tver was given to his son Ivan the Young as an appanage.[20]