Wajoq

The emergence of Wajoq and other interior polities of South Sulawesi is associated with the major agricultural expansion and political centralization in the 14th century, which was encouraged by an increase in external demand for South Sulawesi rice.[2][3] Population rose as the formerly common swidden agriculture was increasingly replaced with intensive wet rice cultivation. Throughout the interior of the peninsula, forests were cleared and new settlements were founded.[4] The people of Wajoq themselves associate the origin of their polity with migrations and establishment of new settlements. Wajorese text Lontaraq Sukkuqna Wajoq (Complete Chronicle of Wajoq), for example, recounts the story of a Bugis noble who, on a hunting expedition, found "an area with wide fields, thick forests with wild boars, deer, and buffalo, and numerous lakes replete with fish".[5] He then decided to settle there and founded the polity of Cinnotabiq,[6] which transformed into Wajoq in the early 15th century.[7]

Tradition maintains that the name "Wajoq" came from the bajoq[lower-alpha 2] tree, under which the then Cinnotabiq ruler La Tenribali[lower-alpha 3] supposedly concluded a social contract with the three chiefs of Boliq, whose communities formed the core of Wajoq.[8][9] La Tenribali was appointed to reign over Boliq lands and thus became the first batara (ruler, lit. "sky") of Wajoq.[8] The third batara of Wajoq, La Pateddungi To Samallangiq, was forced to abdicate by his people, reportedly because of his immoral actions. He was later assassinated by a Wajorese noble.[10] Wajoq then underwent a constitutional change, after which a governing council was established. This council included and was presided by an elective principal ruler, who from then on would be known as the arung matoa (lit. "senior lord"[11]). La Paléwo To Palippu from Béttémpola was chosen by the council as the first arung matoa of Wajoq.[12]

During the reign of the fourth arung matoa, La Tadampareq Puang ri Maggalatung (r. c. 1491–1521[13]), Wajoq became one of the major Bugis polities.[14][15] By the turn of the 16th century, Wajoq had been able to secure a relatively higher standing in its relationship with the neighboring Luwuq, which was a powerful polity in South Sulawesi during the 15th century, and presumably was regarded as Wajoq's overlord.[16][17][18] Together with Luwuq, Wajoq won a war against the nearby polity of Sidénréng in Ajatappareng, forcing the latter to cede its territories north of the central lakes to Wajoq.[16][18] Wajoq under La Tadampareq also absorbed the remnants of what might have been the core territories of Cina, another influential early Bugis polity.[19] Balance of power in the region further shifted in the early 16th century when Boné, a Bugis polity south of Wajoq, emerged victorious against Luwuq, and thus assumed a paramount position in the eastern part of the peninsula.[14][20][21] At the same time, the Makassar twin kingdoms of Gowa and Talloq to the west also started to expand their power.[22] Early in the century, Gowa had cooperated with Boné in wars against Luwuq and Wajoq,[23] but by the mid of the century their struggles for hegemony made Gowa and Boné clashed against each other. By this time, Wajoq had also fallen under Gowa's sphere of influence, and supported Gowa in a war against Boné in the 1560s.[24][25]

Political division of southern Sulawesi in around 1590

The continued rise of Gowa and its harsh treatment of its Bugis subordinates Wajoq and Soppéng prompted the latter two to sign the Treaty of Timurung, a mutual defense pact initiated by Boné in 1582.[26] The relationship between these three allied Bugis polities, also known as the Tellumpocco ("Three Powers", lit. "Three Peaks"), is defined as that of brothers, with Boné acting as the elder, Wajoq the middle, and Soppéng the younger one. It sought to reclaim the autonomy of these Bugis lands, and to stop Gowa's expansionism.[27][28][29] Gowa's subsequent campaigns against Wajoq in 1582 as well as against Boné in 1585 and 1588 were all successfully repulsed by the alliance. Another campaign in 1590 was abandoned following the murder of Gowa's ruler Tunijalloq.[30]

Nevertheless, by the early 17th century, Gowa and Talloq had succeeded in becoming the most dominant powers in the South Sulawesi peninsula as they bolstered international trade and promoted the new faith of Islam.[31] Between 1608 and 1611, Gowa waged successful campaigns throughout South Sulawesi, forcing Soppéng to embrace Islam in 1609, Wajoq in 1610, and Boné in 1611.[32][33] Thereafter, the Tellumpocco surrendered the control of their foreign affairs to Gowa, although they were allowed to retain the alliance and still preserve considerable autonomy within their own domains.[27][34] This arrangement proved to be quite successful to win the support of the Bugis. Wajoq in particular grew increasingly loyal to Gowa. The arung matoa To Mappassaungngé (r. 1627–1628[35]) even offered to guard the Gowa capital when its ruler was off for an expedition, despite he was not being obliged to do so.[34]

Wajoq entered another conflict when the ruler of Boné, La Maddaremmeng (r. 1626–1643), whether for political or religious reasons, attacked and pillaged Pénéki, one of Wajoq's constituent communities.[27][36][lower-alpha 4] As La Maddaremmeng refused to compensate for the goods seized in Pénéki, Wajoq and Boné went to war against each other.[27] Gowa and Soppéng sided with Wajoq in this conflict, and the joint forces succeeded in defeating Boné in late 1643.[37][38] Boné was harshly punished by being made a vassal of Gowa,[27] with a Bugis noble installed as a regent responsible to a Makassar lord. A subsequent rebellion led by La Maddaremmeng's brother was also quashed, and Boné's status was further degraded to that of a "slave" (i.e. a colony), while its nobles were forcibly relocated to Gowa.[39][40] Several contested territories held by Boné were given to Wajoq, and a large number of people from Boné were forced into unpaid labor in Wajoq.[41][42] This humiliation entrenched a feeling of resentment among the people of Boné towards both Gowa and Wajoq.[43][44]

By the second quarter of the 17th century, Gowa and Talloq had become the most politically and economically powerful polities in eastern Indonesia. The twin kingdoms' attempt to retain their hegemony brought them to a conflict with the Dutch East India Company (VOC), which wanted to monopolize the spice trade in the Moluccas.[43][45] In 1660, the Dutch attacked Gowa and managed to seize the fort of Paqnakkukang.[46] Gowa then forced its vassals to provide labor to build military constructions in anticipation of further conflict, which ultimately resulted in a rebellion led by the Boné noble Arung Palakka.[47] However, his attempt to revive the Tellumpocco alliance failed, as Wajoq refused to break its treaty with Gowa to join forces with the rebels.[43][48] Lacking enough support, the rebellion was successfully quelled by Gowa and Wajoq forces, driving Arung Palakka to escape to Buton, and later, to Batavia, seeking aid from the VOC.[49]

During the Makassar War (1666–1669), Wajoq fiercely supported Gowa against the alliance of the VOC and local forces from Boné and elsewhere led by Arung Palakka. Even after the fall of Gowa's court Sombaopu and the formal surrender of Gowa and Talloq, the arung matoa La Tenrilai To Sengngeng (r. 1658–1670) still refused to abide by the Treaty of Bungaya and continued to resist the Dutch and Boné forces.[50][51] By mid-1670, Arung Palakka had launched a large-scale invasion of Wajoq. Despite hard resistance from Wajorese defenders, the walled capital city of Tosora fell to the Boné-led forces in December 1670. La Tenrilai was killed in action, and his successor La Paliliq To Malu (r. 1670–1679) was forced to sign a treaty restricting Wajorese political, trade and military powers, in addition to the Treaty of Bungaya.[52][53] In spite of Wajoq's surrender, it still faced harsh retribution from Arung Palakka and the people of Boné. Many Wajorese were kidnapped and harassed or had their belongings seized.[54] Boné also annexed the coastal territories near the mouth of Cenrana River, which was Wajoq's sole access to the sea.[55] Wajoq's complains to the Dutch at Makassar regarding Boné's arbitrary actions were given little attention. By this time, Arung Palakka had been sending soldiers to help the VOC in a campaign in Java, and the VOC did not want to risk severing their relationship with an important ally.[56][57]

It was these difficulties faced by the Wajorese in their homeland which prompted them to emigrate elsewhere.[55] While migration had always been an important part of Wajorese culture, it was particularly prominent in the aftermath of the Makassar War, when a large number of Wajorese migrants established themselves abroad in Makassar, eastern Borneo, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Straits of Malacca area, among other places.[55][58][59] These diaspora communities were connected to their homeland as well as to each other by familial, commercial, political and legal ties.[60] By the early 18th century, a sequence of Wajorese rulers had begun to take advantage of these connections to revitalize their country. Several rulers ordered their people abroad to buy weapons to rearm Wajoq.[60][61] Attention was also given to commerce; one particular arung matoa, La Tenriwerrung Puanna Sangngaji (r. 1711–1713), even proclaimed it as a moral duty, noting that the people of Wajoq "could not 'stand upright' unless they sought riches".[60] His successor, La Saléwangeng To Tenrirua (r. 1713–1736), actively supported international commerce in more practical ways.[62] He dredged the river that leads to the capital Tosora to ease access for large boats, strengthened local industries by requiring them to appoint political representatives known as akkajenangngeng, created an official governmental post with the specific role of promoting trade, and set up a fund which can be used for investment on commerce and agriculture as well as for social security purposes.[61][62]

Since Arung Palakka's death in 1696, none of his successor was as capable as him in maintaining Boné's hegemony over South Sulawesi. This allowed Wajorese trade to flourish without much restriction.[63] Interaction between Wajorese diaspora communities and their homeland intensified, and it culminated in the 1730s when the exiled Wajorese La Maddukelleng came back to South Sulawesi.[64] At first, he and his followers raided several communities in the western part of the peninsula and in the islands near Makassar.[65] In 1736, he assumed the leadership of Pénéki (a constituent polity of Wajoq) and got involved in a confrontation with Boné. Following a retaliatory invasion from Boné, many Wajorese people came to support La Maddukelleng, and he assumed the position of arung matoa (r. 1736–1754) not long after.[66][lower-alpha 5] With popular support, he led Wajoq into victory over Boné.[67] By mid-1737 a peace agreement had been signed, and Boné was obliged to compensate for all the losses Wajoq had suffered under the rulers of Boné since the Makassar War.[68] Liberated from Boné dominance, Wajoq assumed a hegemonic position in South Sulawesi,[67][69] with Wajorese record even stating that Wajoq was recognized as the leader of the Tellumpocco at the time.[68]