Sunda Kingdom

Batutulis inscription (dated 1533), in Bogor, commemorate the great King of Sunda Sri Baduga Maharaja (rule 1482–1521).

The earliest reference to the name "Sunda" being used to identify a kingdom is the Kebon Kopi II inscription dated 854 Saka (932 CE). This inscription is in the Kawi script, but the language used is Old Malay. It translates as follows:

This memorial stone is to remark the saying of Rakryan Juru Pangambat (Royal Hunter), in 854 Saka, that the order of government is returned to the power of the king of Sunda.

Another reference to the kingdom is the Jayabupati inscription which consists of 40 lines written on four pieces of stone, found on the Cicatih river bank in Cibadak, Sukabumi. This inscription is again written in Kawi script, and mentions the establishment of a protected sacred area called Sanghyang Tapak by the King Jayabhupati of Sunda. The inscription is dated to 1030 CE.

Copperplate letters dating to the 15th century, including royal instructions, also support the existence of the Sunda Kingdom. The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I (Jayagiri) reads that Raja Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care of dayohan in Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the collection of collecting taxes from the residents, because they would be knowledgeable about the Hindu religion and worshipped the gods.

The Kebantenan II (or Sunda Sembawa I) copperplate inscription announces Sri Baduga Maharaja (1482–1521), the king in Pakuan, approved an already delineated sacred estate (tanah devasasana) put at the disposal of the wiku (priests), which must not be split as it houses facilities for worship, which belong to the king. The Kebantenan III (Sunda Sembawa II) copperplate inscription announces the king of Sunda's sanctions of holy construction in Sunda Sembawa. The Kebantenan IV inscription details that Sri Baduga Maharaja, who ruled in Pakuan, sanctioned a similar sacred estate at Gunung Samya (Mount Rancamaya).

The Bujangga Manik manuscript is the primary source on the daily life of the Sunda Kingdom in the late 15th to early 16th century. Detailing place names, culture and customs, in great detail, it is considered one of the important specimens of Old Sundanese literature. The manuscript tells the story of Jaya Pakuan alias Bujangga Manik, though a prince at the court of Pakuan Pajajaran, preferred to live a solitary life as a devout Hindu. As a hermit traveller, the book details two journeys from Pakuan Pajajaran to central and eastern Java and back, the second journey including a visit to Bali. It is concluded that Jaya Pakuan practised asceticism on a mountain in western Java until his death.[10] As manuscript dates from the pre-Islamic Sunda era, it is written in an older form of Sundanese. It does not contain any words traceable to Arabic. Islamic influence is absent from the content of the story as well. The specific mention of Majapahit, Malacca and Demak, allow us to date the writing of the story in the 15th century, probably the latter part of this century, or the early 16th century at the latest.[11]

The Sundanese royal party sailed to Majapahit by Jong sasanga wangunan ring Tatarnagari tiniru, a type of junk, which also incorporates Chinese techniques, such as using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkhead, and addition of central rudder.

Sundanese traditional house with Julang Ngapak roof in Garut circa 1920s. It was built on poles and having a thatched roof, as described in a 12th-century Chinese source.

According to F. Hirt and W. W. Rockhill, there are Chinese sources concerning the Sunda Kingdom. At the time of the Southern Sung Dynasty, the inspector of trade with foreign countries, Chau Ju-kua, collected reports from sailors and merchants who had visited foreign countries. His report on far countries, Chu-fan-chi, written from 1178 to 1225 AD, mentions the deepwater harbour of Sin-t’o (Sunda). Chu-fan-chi reported that:

All along the shores, people are dwelling. The people are working in agriculture, their houses are on poles and the roofs are thatched with the bark of the leaves of palm trees and the walls were made with wooden boards tied together with rattan. Both men and women wrap around their loins a piece of cotton, and in cutting their hair they only leave it half an inch long. The pepper grown on the hills (of this country) is small-grained but heavy and superior to that of Ta-pan (Tuban in eastern Java). The country produces pumpkins, sugar cane, bottle gourd, beans and egg plants. As, however, there is no regular government in this country, the people are given to brigandage, on which account foreign traders rarely go there.

According to this source, the kingdom of Sunda produced high-quality black pepper. The kingdom located in the western parts of Java near Sunda Strait, corresponds to today Banten, Jakarta and the west part of West Java province. According to this source, the port of Sunda was under Srivijaya mandala domination. This Port of Sunda was highly possible to refer to Old Banten instead of Kalapa (present-day North Jakarta). Its capital is located 10 kilometres inland southward in Banten Girang near Mount Pulosari.

The Chinese book “Shun-Feng Hsiang-Sung" from around 1430 AD relates:

In this voyage eastward from Sunda, along the north coast of Java, ships steered 97 1/2 degrees for three watches to make Kalapa; they then followed the coast (past Tanjung Indramayu), finally steering 187 1/2 degrees for four watches to reach Cirebon. Ships from Banten proceeded eastward along the north coast of Java, past Kalapa, past Indramayu head, past Cirebon.

According to this source, the port of Sunda was located west of Kalapa and later identified as the port of Old Banten.

Old map of Java still thought that land of Sunda in the west is separated from the rest of Java island. Here the capital of Sunda is called Daio which refer to Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran

European explorers, mainly Portuguese based in Malacca, also reported the existence of the Sunda Kingdom. Tomé Pires (1513) mentioned a Western Java kingdom that had established trade relation with them as Regño de Çumda, which means "Kingdom of Sunda". Also the report of Antonio Pigafetta (1522) that mentioned Sunda as a pepper producing region.[1]^: 381

Tomé Pires from Portugal wrote in his report Suma Oriental (1513–1515):

Some people affirm that the Sunda kingdom takes up half of the whole island of Java; others, to whom more authority is attributed, say that the Sunda kingdom must be a third part of the island and an eight more. It ends at the river chi Manuk. The river intersects the whole island from sea to sea in such a way that when the people of Java describe their own country, they say that it is bounded to the west by the island of Sunda. The people hold that whoever passes this strait (the river Cimanuk) into the South Sea is carried off by violent currents and unable to return.[12]

The Portuguese report is dated from a later period of the kingdom, shortly before its fall to forces of the Sultanate of Banten.

According to Kebon Kopi II inscription, dated from 932, discovered near Bogor, a skilled hunter named Rakryan Juru Pangambat, declared that the authority is restored to the king of Sunda.[1]^: 381 This inscription was written in Kawi alphabet, however curiously the language being used is Old Malay. Archaeologist F.D.K. Bosch proposed that this suggests Srivijayan influence over western Java. French historian, Claude Guillot proposed that this was a declaration of independence of the Sunda Kingdom, possibly from Srivijaya.

Sanghyang Tapak inscription

According to Sanghyang Tapak inscription, dated from 1030 found in Cibadak near Sukabumi, a king, Maharaja Sri Jayabupati, has established a sacred sanctuary of Sanghyang Tapak. Curiously, the style of the inscriptions reveal an East Javanese script, language, and style, akin to Dharmawangsa's court of Mataram. This has led to suggestions that the Sunda Kingdom at this time probably was under the influence of Mataram, or probably Jayabupati subscribed to Javanese culture.

Sri Jayabupati in Carita Parahyangan is mentioned as Prabu Detya Maharaja. The 11th century Horren inscription found in southern Kediri, reported that çatru Sunda ("enemy from Sunda") had invaded and menacing villages in East Java.[1]^: 388

After Sri Jayabupati, there is no stone inscription discovered mentioning the next ruler. There is no tangible evidence discovered from the period between the 11th to the 14th century. Most of our current knowledge about this period came from Carita Parahyangan.

The Song Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi circa 1200, mentioned that Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and Sin-to (Sunda). The source describes the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden poles (rumah panggung). However, robbers and thieves plagued the country.[13] The port of Sunda referred by Chou Ju-kua probably referred to Old Banten, instead of Sunda Kelapa. It seems that by the early 13th century, the maritime trade was still dominated by Srivijayan mandala based in Sumatra.

The name Sunda appeared in Javanese source, the Pararaton, reported that in 1336, during the inauguration of his newly appointed position as Prime Minister, Gajah Mada declared the Palapa oath, which stated his foreign policy to unify the archipelago under Majapahit domination.[14] Pararaton recorded what Gajah Mada had said:

"Sira Gajah Madapatih Amangkubhumi tan ayun amuktia palapa, sira Gajah Mada: Lamun huwus kalah nusantara isun amukti palapa, lamun kalah ring Gurun, ring Seran, Tañjung Pura, ring Haru, ring Pahang, Dompo, ring Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Tumasik, samana isun amukti palapa."

Translation:

"He, Gajah Mada the Patih Amangkubumi, does not wish to cease his fasting. Gajah Mada: "If (I succeed) in defeating (conquering) Nusantara, (then) I will break my fast. If Gurun, Seram, Tanjung Pura, Haru, Pahang, Dompo, Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Temasek, are all defeated, (then) I will break my fast."

Sunda was mentioned as one of the kingdoms targeted by Mada's overseas campaign. It seems by the early 14th century, the Kingdom of Sunda has grown quite prosperous and took part in international maritime trade.

"Prabu Maharaja" written in both lontar Carita Parahiyangan (15 C AD) & Pararaton (19 C AD).

The Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton named him as Prěbu Maharaja, while the pseudohistorical Wangsakerta give a detailed name of Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana. He ruled from Kawali Galuh, and died in the Battle of Bubat in 1357, fell victim to a stratagem crafted by the Majapahit prime minister, Gajah Mada.[15]

Hayam Wuruk, the king of Majapahit, intended to marry Princess Dyah Pitaloka, the daughter of Prabu Maharaja. Delighted, the Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit, to marry off his daughter to Hayam Wuruk. The Sunda party erected the encampment on Bubat square in the northern part of Trowulan and awaited the proper wedding ceremony. Gajah Mada however, saw this event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Majapahit overlordship and insisted that the princess was to be presented as a token of submission.

Angered and humiliated, the Sunda king decided to cancel the wedding and to return home, resulting in a skirmish between the Sunda royal family and the Majapahit army. Outnumbered, almost the entire Sundanese party, including the princess, perished in this tragedy. The tradition says Princess Dyah Pitaloka committed suicide to defend the honour of her country. After his death, Prabu Maharaja was revered as Prabu Wangi (lit. 'King with pleasant fragrance') for the heroic defence of his honour. Thus his successors, the later kings of Sunda, were later called Siliwangi (lit. successor of Wangi). The story is the main theme of the book Kidung Sunda, another source reporting this incident found in Bali.

One of Kawali inscriptions

The next king of Sunda was Niskala Wastu Kancana, who was the youngest son of Prabu Maharaja and younger brother to Princess Dyah Pitaloka, who both perished in Bubat Incident. In 1371, Prince Wastu ascended to the throne, stylized as Prabu Raja Wastu Kancana. According to one of Astana Gede inscriptions, approximately dated from the second half of the 14th century, the king ordered the construction of defensive structures, walls and moats surrounding Kawali city, and renovated Surawisesa palace.[16] The construction of moats and other defensive measures, was probably as a response to a perceived foreign threat. Especially since the relations between Sunda and its powerful eastern neighbour Majapahit empire badly deteriorated following the Bubat incident.[15] Niskala Wastu then resided in Kawali palace of Galuh.[1]^: 392 His reign is remembered as a long era of peace and prosperity.

The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I reads that Raja Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care of dayohan in Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the collection of taxes from the residents because they were knowledgeable about the Hindu religion and worshipped the gods.

According to Batutulis inscription, Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana was buried in Nusalarang, and supported by Carita Parahyangan manuscript that mentioned "Prebu Niskala Wastu Kancana surup di Nusalarang ring giri Wanakusumah". At this point, the capital was still located in Galuh, more precisely in Kawali city.[1]^: 391

Niskala Wastu Kancana's son, named as Tohaan di Galuh (Lord of Galuh) in Carita Parahyangan, succeeded him as the king. He was mentioned in Kebantenan I inscription as Hyang Ningrat Kancana and in Batutulis inscription as Rahyang Dewa Niskala.

The new king, however, reigned for only seven years and subsequently demoted. Carita Parahyangan tells that "... kena salah twa(h) bogo(h) ka estri larangan ti kaluaran ..," which translate as "because (his) wrongdoing, fell in love with a forbidden outsider woman."[1]^: 393 Although it was unclear as to what the line mean, it was possible that the forbidden outsider woman was a muslim, signifying the presence of Islam in western Java.

According to the Batutulis inscription, Rahyang Dewa Niskala was later buried in Gunatiga. This information is supported by Carita Parahyangan which mentioned that Tohaan di Galuh was nu surup di Gunung Tilu' died or buried in Gunung Tilu (Tilu means three), which corresponds to Gunung Tilu mountain range located east of the town of Kuningan.[17]

Statue of a Hindu god from Talaga near Kuningan, West Java, dated from the Sunda Kingdom.

Sang Ratu Jayadewata (reigned 1482 to 1521) or also known as Sri Baduga Maharaja, is a grandson of Prabu Wastu Kancana. Jayadewata is often linked with a popular character Prabu Siliwangi in the Sundanese oral tradition of pantun.

King Jayadewata moved the government seat from Kawali back to Pakuan in 1482. It is not clear, however, the reason behind the transfer of capital westward; it might be a geopolitical move to secure the capital away from the eastern threat from the rising Muslim power of Demak in Central Java. By 1482, according to Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a Cirebon chronicle, Cirebon declared its independence from Sunda and no longer sent tribute to the Sunda court. Based on the Kebantenan copperplate inscription, he established a tanah devasasana sacred estate at Mount Samya or Rancamaya. He also announced the construction of a sacred compound in Sunda Sembawa, stipulated as the resident of the priests.

According to Batutulis inscription, Sri Baduga Maharaja built defensive moats surrounding Pakuan Pajajaran; he built gugunungan (sacred mounds), established huts and sacred Samya forest, reserves for wood destined for offerings, and the artificial lake Talaga Rena Mahawijaya (which apparently served as a reservoir).[18] Certainly, there was a good road to Sunda Kalapa (present-day Jakarta), the most important harbour of the Sunda kingdom. At the time of Tome Pirés's visit to Pakuan, Sri Baduga Maharaja reigned over the Sunda kingdom.

The reign of King Jayadewata was hailed as the golden age of the Sundanese people. The kingdom consolidated its rule and exercised power throughout the western part of Java. It also marked the era of great prosperity resulting from efficient agriculture management and the thriving pepper trade in the region. This era of great wealth also marked the beginning of the Sunda kingdom's decline.

During the reign of King Jayadewata, there was already a group of Sunda inhabitants that had converted to Islam, as testified by Portuguese account. Tomé Pires in 1513 reported, there was a significant number of Muslims residing in the port of Cimanuk (today Indramayu), the easternmost port of Sunda Kingdom. According to a Portuguese report, the port of Cirebon which is located just east of Cimanuk is already a Muslim port by that time, ruled by Javanese.

These new converts most probably were the people referred to in Carita Parahyangan as "those who felt no peace because of having strayed from Sanghyang Siksa". Nevertheless, during this time, Islamic influence had not yet penetrated inland into the capital. As mentioned in Carita Parahyangan that "mana mo kadatangan ku musuh ganal, musu(h) alit", which means the capital is "safe from rough/coarse enemy, (as well as) soft/subtle enemy". The term "coarse enemy" refers to an actual invading foreign army, while "subtle enemy" refers to the propagation of a new faith or new religion that might upset the established spiritual order of the kingdom.[1]^: 394

The kingdom anxiously watched the growing influence of the expansive Islamic Sultanate of Demak that finally succeeded in destroying Daha, the remnant of the Hindu Majapahit court in 1527. As a result of this event, only Blambangan in the eastern edge of Java, and Sunda in the western part remained Hindu kingdoms in Java. Meanwhile, in the land of Sunda, Muslim influences started to penetrate the kingdom.

Keraton Kasepuhan of Cirebon. By 1482, the Sunda kingdom lost its important eastern port of Cirebon.

Bujangga Manik manuscript, written circa the second half of the 15th century reported that the eastern boundary of Sunda Kingdom realm was the Cipamali river in present-day Brebes. However, the Portuguese Suma Oriental in 1513 reported that the eastern border of Sunda Kingdom is located in the port of Chemano (Cimanuk), the estuarine of Manuk River. This means between 1450 and 1513 the kingdom has lost control of the area surrounding Cirebon, between Brebes and Indramayu on the northeastern part of the kingdom. This signifies the coastal Muslim Javanese push westward into once a traditional Sundanese territory, as Demak Sultanate was responsible as the patron for the rise of Cirebon.

The detail of the Sunda Kingdom and its relations with the rise of Cirebon Sultanate, mostly were taken from the account of Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a manuscript of Cirebon chronicle which claimed Cirebon as the rightful successor of Sunda Kingdom.

According to Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a Sunda king Prabu Siliwangi married Nyai Subang Larang, daughter of Ki Gedeng Tapa, port master of Muara Jati (today Cirebon). They had three children: Prince Walangsungsang, Princess Rara Santang, and Prince Kian Santang.[19] Although Prince Walangsungsang was the first-born son of the King, the prince did not earn the right as a crown prince of Sunda Kingdom. This was because his mother, Nyai Subang Larang was not the queen consort. Another reason was because of his conversion to Islam, probably influenced by his mother as she is a Muslim. In the 16th century western Java, the prevalent faith practiced was Hinduism, Sundanese ancestral religion, and Buddhism. It was his half brother, Prabuwisesa, the king's son from his third wife Nyai Cantring Manikmayang, who was chosen as the crown prince.

Walangsungsang later moved to a settlement called Dukuh Alang-alang on 1445. After Ki Gedeng Alang-Alang's death in 1447, Walangsungsang appointed as the ruler of the town and established a court and assumed a new title as Prince Cakrabuana. King Siliwangi sent his envoy Tumenggung Jagabaya and Raja Sengara, to bestow Prince Carkrabuana with the title Tumenggung Sri Mangana. The settlement, now called Cirebon grew into a thriving port, yet Cakrabuana was still loyal to his father and sent tribute to the main court of Sunda. At that time Cirebon was still a principality within the Sunda Kingdom.

In 1479, Cakrabuana was succeeded by his nephew, Sharif Hidayatullah, the son of his sister Nyai Rara Santang. He married his cousin, Nyi Mas Pakungwati daughter of Cakrabuana. He is popularly known with his posthumously name Sunan Gunungjati. On 2 April 1482, Sunan Gunungjati stated that Cirebon will no longer send tribute to Pajajaran, which marked the proclamation that the Sultanate of Cirebon is independent from Sunda Pajajaran.[19]

The character described in Purwaka Caruban Nagari, as Prabu Siliwangi, matched the historic character of Dewa Niskala or Ningrat Kancana, referred as Lord of Galuh in Carita Parahyangan. Tohaan di Galuh was the son and heir of Niskala Wastu Kancana.

The pressure from coastal Javan Islamic states drove the king of Sunda, Sri Baduga Maharaja, to seek assistance from the Portuguese at Malacca. In 1512 and again in 1521, he sent his son, the crown prince Surawisesa also known as Ratu Sang Hyang (Samian) to Malacca to request the Portuguese to sign an alliance treaty, to trade in pepper and to build a fort at his main port of Sunda Kalapa. Sunan Gunung Jati's son later also established the Sultanate of Banten, which later become a menace for the Hindu Sunda Kingdom.

After Sri Baduga Maharaja's death in 1521, the succeeding kings, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa, also known as Ratu Sang Hyang whom the Portuguese called Ratu Samian, faced the menace of Cirebon and Demak. Under this threat, Surawisesa, who reigned from 1521 to 1535, concluded the treaty with Portuguese from Malacca to establish a warehouse and fortress at Sunda Kelapa in return for protection against the menace of these Islamic Sultanates.

By 1522, the Portuguese were ready to form a coalition with the King of Sunda to get access to his lucrative pepper trade. The commander of Malacca, Jorge de Albuquerque, sent a ship, the São Sebastião, under Captain Henrique Leme, to Sunda Kalapa with valuable gifts for the king of Sunda. Two written sources describe the concluding of the treaty in detail, the original Portuguese document of 1522 with the text of the treaty and the signatories of the witnesses, and a report on that event by João de Barros in his book Da Ásia, printed after 1777/78.

The king welcomed them warmly upon their arrival. The crown prince had succeeded his father and was now King Prabu Surawisesa, although Barros called him King Samião. This Sunda ruler agreed to an arrangement of friendship with the King of Portugal and granted a fortress at the mouth of the Ciliwung River where the Portuguese could load as many peppers as they wished. In addition, he pledged, dating from the start of construction on the fortress, each year he would donate one thousand sacks of pepper to the Portuguese king. The contract document was drafted into two copies and signed. On the said day in 1522, Henrique Leme of Portuguese and his entourage together with deputies of the King of Sunda erected a commemoration stone at the mouth of the Ciliwung River.

The port of Sunda Kelapa, the cradle of Jakarta. For centuries it was the royal port of Sunda Kingdom serving the capital Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran 60 kilometres inland to the south until it fell to Demak and Cirebon forces in 1527.

This trade and defence treaty was fallen apart tremendously due to Portuguese failure to deliver their promise to construct the fortress in Kalapa. The delay was caused by troubles in Goa. To make things worse, in 1527 Fatahillah, a military commander sent from Demak, managed to capture the Sunda Kalapa harbour just before the Portuguese returned.

The army of Fatahillah, comprising around Cirebon-Demak troops, conquered Sunda Kalapa. The Sunda authority stationed in the port were fallen. The harbour chief and his family, the royal minister, and all of the people working in the harbour were slaughtered. The port city was completely destroyed and razed, as the Sundanese reinforcements sent from Pakuan was too weak and retreated. The Sunda Kingdom has lost its most important port, thus subsequently Sunda Kalapa was renamed Jayakarta by its Muslim conqueror.

Thirty Portuguese sailors, shipwrecked by storms, swam to the beach at Kalapa only to be killed by Fatahillah's men. The Portuguese recognised the political leadership had changed when they were not allowed to set foot on the land. As they were too weak for a battle, they set sail back to Malacca. The next year, a second attempt failed because of striking sailors angry at not having been paid.

The failure to rely on Portuguese assistance has led Sunda to fend for their own survival by themselves. Carita Parahyangan mentioned that during his 14 years of reign (1521–1535), King Sang Hyang (Surawisesa) has fought in 15 battles. Unbeatable, all in which he managed to repel the series of invading Muslim forces from Cirebon and Demak. He fought in Kalapa, Tanjung, Ancol Kiji, Wahanten Girang, Simpang, Gunung Batu, Saung Agung, Rumbut, Gunung, Gunung Banjar, Padang, Panggoakan, Muntur, Hanum, Pagerwesi, and Medangkahyangan.[1]^: 398

The war between Cirebon-Demak forces and the Sunda kingdom lasted for almost five years. The king lost thousands of his men. During this war, after Sunda Kalapa, Sunda Kingdom also lost the Port of Banten. Sunan Gunungjati of Cirebon later crowned his son, Hasanuddin, as the king of Banten under the auspices of the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, offered Hasanudin his sister's hand in marriage. Banten was established as the capital of this new sultanate, held as a vassal under Sultanate of Cirebon.[20] Finally, in 1531, a peace treaty was concluded between King Surawisesa of Sunda and Syarif Hidayatullah of Cirebon.

In an apparent sorrow after the tremendous defeat and the loss of his two most important ports, Prabu Surawisesa established the Batutulis inscription in 1533 to commemorate his late father.[21] This action was probably an attempt to spiritually appeal for ancestral guidance and protection against the powerful Muslim enemy that now loomed by the gates. Because of ongoing battles, he often could not stay in his palace in Pakuan Pajajaran.

Prabu Ratu Dewata also known as Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata, was the successor of Prabu Surawisesa. He was, however, not his son. The reign of Prabu Ratu Dewata between 1535 and 1543 was known as a chaotic and difficult one full of hardship, as Islamic forces from Cirebon and Banten tried multiple times to capture the Dayeuh Pakuan capital.

During Ratu Dewata reign, the Carita Parahyangan reported several calamities befell the kingdom; there was a sudden attack, a lot of enemies razed the city, thus mass combat erupted in the grand yard (alun-alun).[1]^: 398 In this battle, the noble princes were killed. The chaos has widespread across the kingdom, the attack also occurred in Ciranjang and Sumedang. Another terror was the assassination of the rishis, hermits and Hindu priests that resides in the hermitage sanctuaries. It was reported that the Hindu priests and hermits of mandala Jayagiri, were captured and drowned in the sea.[1]^: 400 It is highly possible that the attack was launched by Muslim states of Banten or Cirebon.[1]^: 395 This was a devastating attack straight to the spiritual core of the Sundanese Hindu community.

Unable to control the kingdom, instead of fulfilling his duty by maintaining the law and order, Prabu Ratu Dewata retreated himself to become a Raja Pandita (priestly king), submitted himself deeply into religious rituals as an apparently desperate appeal for gods' salvation.[1]^: 396 By this time, Sunda Kingdom were already isolated and confined to the inland.

The Port of Banten in the 16th century. The Islamic Sultanate of Banten was responsible for the demise of Hindu Sunda Kingdom, and supplant it as the dominant polity in western parts of Java in the following centuries.

Series of last Sunda kings were notoriously known as incompetent rulers. The successor of Ratu Dewata, King Ratu Sakti reigned from 1543 to 1551, was known as a ruthless king, who indulges himself with sensual pleasure.[1]^: 396

The next successor that ruled from 1551 to 1567, King Nilakendra, also known as Tohaan di Majaya, is also an incompetent ruler. Instead of fulfilling his duty as a king, he renovates and beautifies the palace. Squander kingdom's fortune by indulging himself in pleasures and luxury.[1]^: 396

Because of ongoing battles, ironically Tohaan di Majaya could not stay in his newly renovated palace. The last kings of Sunda could no longer reside in Pakuan Pajajaran, since in the 1550s Hasanuddin, the sultan of Banten has launched a successful attack on Dayeuh Pakuan, captured and razed the capital.

The surviving Sunda royalties, nobles and common people fled the fallen city, heading to the mountainous wilderness. After the fall of Pakuan Pajajaran, the royal regalia of Sunda Kingdom was evacuated to the eastern principality of Sumedang Larang. Among these regalias are Makuta Binokasih Sanghyang Paké, the royal crown of Sunda. Thus the member of the Sunda dynasty established a surviving minor regional kingdom of Sumedang Larang where Sundanese aristocracy would survive for a few more centuries to come until conquered by Mataram Sultanate in the 17th century.

From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, also known as Prabu Surya Kencana, the kingdom declined substantially. In Carita Parahyangan, his name is Nusiya Mulya. He ruled further inland in Pulasari, near Pandeglang, at the slope of Mount Palasari. The kingdom has fallen apart, particularly after 1576 due to constant pressure from Banten, and finally collapsed completely in 1579. Thereafter, the Sultanate of Banten took over most of the former Sunda Kingdom's territory, thus ultimately put an end to a millennium of Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilization of West Java.[1]^: 396 By this time, Java has turned more and more Islamic. Only the kingdom of Blambangan on the eastern edge was the last surviving Hindu kingdom in Java, well until its demise in the early 18th century.

Hindu Brahmin's ritual objects, including bronze bell and holy water container from Kawali, the historic capital of Galuh Kingdom.

The capital of the Galuh Kingdom of the eastern Priangan region, has moved several times. In the older period, the capital was located around the Karang Kamulyan site by the banks of Citanduy river. By the early 14th century, the capital was moved further northwest upstream, in the area now known as Astana Gede, near the current town of Kawali, Ciamis Regency. The city was located on the eastern slope of Mount Sawal near the source of the Citanduy river. A Kawali inscription was discovered here. According to tradition, the keraton in Kawali is called Surawisesa, expanded and renovated by King Niskala Wastu Kancana. Kawali served as the capital of the kingdom for several generations until Sri Baduga Maharaja moved the government back to Pakuan in 1482.

Location of Pakuan Pajajaran copied from book "Kabudayaan Sunda Zaman Pajajaran" Part 2", 2005

After the fall of Tarumanagara in the 7th century, King Tarusbawa built a new capital city inland near the source of the Cipakancilan river in present-day Bogor. According to Carita Parahyangan, a manuscript from the 15th or 16th century, King Tarusbawa was only mentioned as Tohaan (Lord/King) of Sunda. He was the ancestor of a series of Sunda kings that reigned until 723. Pakuan served as the capital of Sunda during the reign of several kings, and the court shifted to Kawali until Sri Baduga Maharaja moved the court from Kawali back to Pakuan in 1482.

The city was permanently settled since at least the 10th century, but not gaining major political importance until King Jayadewata established it as the royal capital of the Sunda kingdom in the 15th century. In 1513, the city was visited by its first European visitor, Tomé Pires, the Portuguese envoy.[22]^: 40 According to his report, the city of Daio (Dayeuh is a Sundanese term for "capital city") was great city, with population around 50,000 inhabitants.[1]^: 404

The tradition hailed that King Jayadewata ruled justly from his beautiful Kadatwan (palace) called Sri Bima Punta Narayana Madura Suradipati at Pakuan Pajajaran, and his reign is celebrated as the golden age for Sundanese people.[1]^: 393

After the reign of King Jayadewata (Sri Baduga Maharaja), Pakuan Pajajaran served as the royal capital for several generations. Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran served as the capital of the Sunda Kingdom for almost a hundred years (1482 – 1579), until it was razed and destroyed by the Sultanate of Banten in 1579.

Because Pakuan, the capital city of the Sunda kingdom laid between two parallel rivers, Ciliwung and Cisadane, it was called Pajajaran (lit. place laid between two parallel things) or Pakuan Pajajaran. Although primary local and European historical records referred to the kingdom in the western part of Java island as the Sunda Kingdom, the Sundanese, especially after the establishment of the Sultanate of Banten and Cirebon, referred to the kingdom (minus the coastal sultanates) as "Pakuan Pajajaran" Kingdom, or simply as the Pakuan Kingdom or the Pajajaran Kingdom. The later name – Pajajaran – is more familiar for people residing in West Java and the Javanese of Mataram region (current Yogyakarta and Solo).

Makuta Binokasih Sanghyang Paké, the royal crown of Sunda kingdom. After the fall of Pajajaran to Banten, the crown was evacuated to Sumedang Larang and become their regalia.

In many historical sources, including manuscripts, inscriptions, as well as foreign historical accounts from China and Portuguese reports, all refer to "Sunda" as a kingdom. On the other hand, the term "Pakuan" and "Pajajaran" or "Dayeuh" refer to its capital which corresponds to the modern city of Bogor. The tangible evidence on the existence of a kingdom as an administrative social structure, was found in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 Saka (1030 CE), that mentioned Prahajyan Suṇḍa (Sunda Kingdom), with Sri Jayabhupati claimed as haji ri Suṇḍa (the king of Sunda).[1]^: 402

Through the study on the 14th century inscriptions in Astana Gede site in Kawali, historian suggests that the political model of Sunda Kingdom adhered the concept of Tri Tangtu di Buana, which administrative power was distributed in triad among three elements; Prebu (king), Rama (village chief or regional elder) and Resi (rishi priestly class of religious authority).[23]

According to Tomé Pires (1513), the Sunda kingdom is ruled by a paramount raja (king or monarch), and the right of the throne inheritance descended from a father to his son. However, in the case when a king did not produce a male heir, the successor is elected from the lesser kings, the rulers of regional towns or provinces.[1]^: 403 These lesser kings are called Tohaan (lord) that acts as local governor, and most are related to the king, which means they belong in the same dynasty.

Much of our current knowledge on detailed social order and the bureaucracy structure of the kingdom, is owed to the Sundanese manuscript of Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian, compiled around 1518.

...nihan sinangguh dasa prebakti ngaranya. Anak bakti di bapa, ewe bakti di laki, hulun bakti di pacandaan, sisya bakti di guru, wong tani bakti di wado, wado bakti di mantri, mantri bakti di nu nangganan, nu nangganan bakti di mangkubumi, mangkubumi bakti di ratu, ratu bakti di dewata, dewata bakti di hyang ...
This is a reminder which is called "Ten bhakti (devotion)": sons (children) devoted to (their) father, wife devoted to husband, the common people (servants or slaves) devoted to (their) master or employer (pacandaan = place to lean on), students devoted to (their) guru (teacher), farmers devoted to wado (lesser employee), wado devoted to mantri (government official), mantri devoted to nu nangganan (lit. "handler", which refer to managerial position in bureaucracy), nu nagganan devoted to mangkubumi (lord or governor), mangkubumi devoted to ratu (king or monarch), the king devoted to dewata (gods), dewata devoted to hyang (higher spirit).

— Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian[1]^: 403

According to Carita Parahyangan, all regional ruler (governor), rama (village chief), government officials, and rishi (Hindu priests), are required to make a formal annual visit to the capital; paying homage, tax or tribute to the court. As mentioned in some fragments of this manuscript:
"..., ti Kandangwesi pamwat siya ka Pakwan..." ("... from Kandangwesi the tribute was sent to Pakuan"),
"..., anaking sang Prebu Rama, Resi samadaya sarerea siya marek ka Pakwan unggal tahun..." ("... my son the chief of the village, the rishis together all paid a visit to Pakuan every years").[1]^: 405

A Sundanese woman retrieving rice from a leuit, Sundanese economy mainly rely on rice agriculture

The economy of the Sunda kingdom relied on agriculture, especially rice cultivation; this is reflected in Sundanese culture and the annual ceremonies of crop seeding and Seren Taun rice harvest festival. The harvest ceremony also allowed the king's official to collect tax in the form of rice that can be stored in the state's Leuit (rice barn).

According to Siksakanda ng Karesian, Sundanese farmers during the era of the Sunda Kingdom did recognize sawah or the wet-field rice cultivation. However, the widespread rice cultivation system applied in the kingdom seems to be the ladang or the dry-field rice which is a much simpler form of cultivation that doesn't require an elaborate social structure to support it. This corresponds with the geography and topography of West Java which dominated by the central Parahyangan Plateau, in contrast with Central and East Java that consists of river valleys between volcanoes. As the result, compared to Central and East Java, West Java at that time was more sparsely populated, consists of settlements, villages or hamlet quite isolated deep within highland valleys, which render direct administrative control from the kingdom's central government rather difficult.

The kingdom was also well known as the world's main producer of high quality pepper. The kingdom participated in a spice trade network in the archipelago. The ports of Sunda participated in international trades in the region.

In Suma Oriental, written in 1512-1515, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese explorer report about the ports of Sunda:

First the king of Çumda (Sunda) with his great city of Dayo, the town and lands and port of Bantam, the port of Pomdam (Pontang), the port of Cheguide (Cigede), the port of Tamgaram (Tangerang), the port of Calapa (Kelapa), and the port of Chemano (Chi Manuk or Cimanuk), this is Sunda, because the river of Chi Manuk is the limit of both kingdoms.[24]

Another Portuguese explorer, Diogo do Couto, wrote that the Sunda kingdom is thriving and abundant; it lies between Java and Sumatra, separated from the latter by the Sunda Strait. Many islands lie along the coast of this kingdom within the strait, for nearly the space of forty leagues; the strait's widest point is about twenty-five and narrowest point only twelve leagues broad. Bantam is about the midpoint. All the islands are well timbered but have little water. A small one called Macar, at the entrance of Sunda Strait, is said to have much gold.

He also noted that the principal ports of the Sunda kingdom were Banten, Ache, Chacatara (Jakarta), which annually receive twenty sommas, ships from Chienheo, China, to ship the eight thousand bahars, which are equal to 3,000,000 kg of pepper the kingdom produced.

Bantam is situated at 6° south latitude, in the middle of a bay, three leagues from point to point. The town is eight hundred and fifty fathoms in length, and the seaport extends about 400. A river capable of admitting junks and galleys flows through the middle of the town: a small branch of this river admits boats and small craft.

There is a brick fort, the walls of which are seven palms thick, with wooden bulwarks, armed with two tiers of artillery. The anchorage is good, with a muddy or sandy bottom and a depth from two to six fathoms.

The statue of Shiva Mahadeva from Cibodas village, Cicalengka Subdistrict, Bandung Regency, West Java. Possibly from the Sunda Kingdom period 8th to 9th century.

Hinduism was one of the earliest religious influences established in West Java since the era of Tarumanagara, circa early 5th century CE. In fact, West Java was one of the earliest places in Indonesia that being Indianized, also sparked the historic period of Indonesian history by producing the earliest inscription in Java. As Tarumanagara's successor, Sunda Kingdom has inherited this Hindu civilization influences.

The culture of the people in the Sunda kingdom blends Hinduism with Sunda Wiwitan; a native shamanism belief, and also a traces of Buddhism is observable. Several intact prehistoric megalithic sites, such as Cipari site in Kuningan and the Pangguyangan menhir and stepped pyramid in Cisolok, Sukabumi, suggest that native shamanic animism and dynamism beliefs coexisted with Hinduism and Buddhism. The native belief, Sunda Wiwitan, persists today as a way of life for the Baduy or Kanekes people who resist Islam and other foreign influences.

The Cangkuang Hindu temple in Leles, Garut, dated from the 8th century, was dedicated to Shiva and built during the Galuh kingdom. Buddhist influence came to West Java through the Srivijaya conquest, as the empire dominated West Java until the 11th century. The brick stupas in Batujaya indicate Buddhist influence in West Java, while nearby Cibuaya sites show Hindu influence.

The manuscript Carita Parahyangan clearly demonstrate Hinduism spirituality within the Sunda Kingdom society. This manuscript is opened with a legendary character named Sang Resi Guru that had a son named Rajaputra. Comprehensively the manuscript was written by a Hindu scholar which demonstrate the Hindu frame of references.[1]^: 379 The Hindu pantheon, such as Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesvara, Rudra, Sadasiva, Yama, Varuna, Kuvera, Indra and Besravaka, were also mentioned in the ancient Sundanese manuscript of Sewakadharma or also known as Serat Dewabuda, dated 1357 Saka or 1435 CE.[1]^: 379

Hindu ritual objects; bells, small statue, trishula and ornament of a ritual staff made of bronze, from Talaga near Kuningan, West Java. These objects belonged to Brahmin Hindu priests. Hinduism was the dominant faith in the Sunda Kingdom.

The Sundanese manuscript of spiritual guidance, the Sanghyang Siksakanda ng Karesian also demonstrate Hinduism religious outlook and frame of references, although it seems already mixed with some sorts of Buddhism spirituality. " ... ini na lakukeuneun, talatah sang sadu jati. Hongkara namo Sewaya, sembah ing hulun di Sanghyang Panca Tatagata; panca ngaran ing lima, tata ma ngaran ing sabda, gata ma ngaran ing raga, ya eta ma pahayueun sareanana .., ", " ... this has to be done, the true mandate of the good-hearted (or trusted one). Blessed (should be) in the name of Shiva. Worship the servant to Sanghyang Panca Tatagata (Buddha), panca means five, tata means words, gata means body, yes, that is for the good of all".[1]^: 379

Sunda Kingdom period did not produce enough archaeological evidence and records that could give comprehensive knowledge about the religious aspects of its population. Yet, there are few interesting things that suggest a syncretism took place between Hinduism, Buddhism, and a form of local beliefs system. This indication emerged from the veneration of Hyang figure, which considered possess higher status than Hindu-Buddhist deities, as it is shown in Sanghyang Siksakanda Ng Karesian manuscript (1518): "...mangkubumi bakti di ratu, ratu bakti di dewata, dewata bakti di hyang...", which means "...mangkubumi submit to the king, king submit to the gods, and gods submit to hyang..."[25]

Ancient Sundanese society did not build temples that are meticulously decorated with exquisite bas-reliefs as demonstrated in temples built by neighbouring Javanese in central and east Java that flourished around the same era. Furthermore, their statuary such as Shiva from Cangkuang temple and Ganesha from the Karang Kamulyan site were made such in a very simple form, almost has primitive megalithic style and quality. This has led to the suggestion that Hinduism and Buddhism were not truly and fully embraced by the ancient Sundanese populace because they still rather faithfully adhered to their own vernacular ancestral beliefs system.[25]

A bronze statue of Hindu god Shiva discovered in Talaga near Kuningan, West Java. Sunda kingdom period, circa 14th century.

The culture of the Sunda kingdom centred on agricultural activity, especially rice cultivation. Nyi Pohaci Sanghyang Asri or Sanghyang Asri, the goddess of rice, is revered as the main deity or the highest goddess within Sundanese pantheon. The priest was concerned about the religious ceremonies and the king and his subjects participated in annual ceremonies and festivals such as the blessing of the rice seeds ceremonies and harvest festival. The annual Seren Taun rice harvest festival is still practised today in traditional Sundanese communities.

According to the Bujangga Manik manuscript, the courtly culture of Sunda kraton and its nobles' etiquette in Pakuan Pajajaran was sophisticated. However, no traces of the palace or buildings survived in the former capital, probably because their wood construction decayed over the centuries.

The Portuguese source provide a glimpse of the culture and customs of the Sunda kingdom. In his report “Suma Oriental (1512–1515)” Tomé Pires wrote:

Sunda kingdom is very rich. The land of Sunda has as much as four thousands horses that come there from Priaman (Sumatera) and other islands to be sold. It has up to forty elephants; these are for the king’s array. An inferior gold, of six carats, is found. There is an abundance of tamarinds that serve the native for vinegar.

The city where the king is most of the year is the great city of Dayo. The city has well-built houses of palm leaf and wood. They say that the king’s house has three hundred and thirty wooden pillars as thick as a wine cask, and five fathoms (8 m) high, and beautiful timber work on the top of the pillars, and a very well-built house. The city is two days journey from the chief port, which is called Kalapa.

The people of the sea coast get along well with the merchants in the land. They are accustomed to trading. These people of Sunda very often come to Malacca to trade. They bring cargo lancharas, ships of a hundred and fifty tons. Sunda has up to six junks and many lancharas of the Sunda kind, with masts like a crane, and steps between each so that they are easy to navigate.[26]

The people of Sunda are said to be truthful. They, with the great city of Dayo, the town and lands and port of Bantam, the port of Pontang, the port of Cheguide, the port of Tangaram, the Port of Tangaram, the port of Calapa, the port of chi Manuk. are justly governed. The king is a great sportsman and hunter. The kingdom descends from father to son. The women are handsome, and those of the nobles chaste, which is not the case with those of the lower classes. There are monasteries of convents for the women, into which the nobles put their daughters when they cannot match them in marriage according to their wishes. The married women, when their husband dies, must, as a point of honour, die with them, and if they should be afraid of death they put into the convents. The inhabitants are not very warlike, much addicted to their idolatries. They are fond of rich arms, ornamented with gold and inlaid work. Their krises are gilt, and also the point of their lances.