White feminism

At its origin, feminism in Western societies was represented by white educated women primarily focusing on the right to vote and political representation.[9] An example of the criticized practices is found in Mary Wollstonecraft's text, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman[10] published in 1792, where Wollstonecraft advocates for moral and political equality between men and women, however only addressing members belonging to the middle-class. Similarly, in France, Olympe de Gouges advocated for women’s rights in her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen as early as 1791.[11] White feminism aligns itself to white supremacy by attempting to hide white women's participation and function in white supremacy by seeing them as victims because of their gender but not holding white women accountable for their part in it when women of color are excluded.[12]

"Feminism without intersectionality is just white supremacy"

Kimberlé Crenshaw, Columbia scholar and Professor of Law at the University of California, Los Angeles, has championed Black feminism movements and provided the foundational framework for the idea of intersectionality. In Crenshaw's words, intersectionality is "a lens through which you can see where power comes and collides, where it interlocks and intersects".[13] In her 1989 article, "Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics", Crenshaw illuminates the compounded nature of Black women's experience of discrimination and injustice. As race and gender intersect, Black women are subjected to racist and misogynistic treatment, simultaneously. This article serves as the foundational literature for implementing a multi-axis framework analysis of race and gender. Crenshaw argues that historically, Black women have been excluded from both the Civil Rights Movement as well as Feminist movements, despite their unique presence in both identities. The intersection of non-white ethnicity and female gender identity compounds the harmful, unjust, discriminatory actions against members of these groups; women of color. Applying a single-axis framework of analysis, Black women in the twentieth century were excluded from social justice campaigns as white women dominantly represented the feminist movements while Black men represented the Civil Rights Movement.

Crenshaw's application of an intersectional lens to analyze the experience of Black women remains relevant and useful in considering the presence of white feminism in activist movements today. Without this lens, women of color are "theoretically erased" from both feminist and antiracist analyses.

Women's suffrage parade in New York City, May 6, 1912.

The first wave of feminism began in the late nineteenth century, and focused on the equality of political and economic rights. The rights women were fighting were: women's suffrage, access to education, ability to hold political office, equality in the workforce, and legal rights in marriage.[14] This wave officially started with the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, towards the end of the Industrial Revolution. The goal of this wave was to open up opportunities for women, with a focus on suffrage.[15] It was a movement predominantly organized and defined by middle-class, educated white women, and therefore concentrated mostly on issues pertaining to them.[16][17]

While some women of color were part of the first-wave feminist movement, such as the Indian suffragette Sophia Duleep Singh, on the whole the first suffragist movements remained primarily white; for example, there has been no historical evidence pertaining to the participation of Black British women in UK suffrage movement. In 1893, New Zealand became the first region in the British Empire to grant women of all ethnicities the right to vote; this was met with anger from some suffragists, including Millicent Fawcett, who expressed displeasure that Māori women in New Zealand were able to vote, while women in Britain were not.[18] American suffragettes Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton fought for white women to get the right to vote in the United States, which led to white women gaining the right to vote before African American men.[19][20][21]

Nevertheless, their “History of Woman Suffrage”, is a clear example of white feminism as it widely disregards the role of Black women while focusing on white figures of the movement. While 1920 is celebrated as the beginning of women's voting rights in the United States, African American women were still evicted from voting polls in the Jim Crow South. At that time, African American were excluded from the feminist movement. In fact, the Black suffragist Mary Church Terrell was denied the help of white activists.[22] Although women of color are not commonly referenced in the feminist literary space, they were still active during the origins of feminism.[23][24] For example, as early as 1851, Sojourner Truth, a former slave, delivered a speech “Ain’t I a woman” in which she calls for what would be later on described as intersectionality.[25]

Second-wave feminism began in the 1960s and lasted through the 1980s. This time period focused on women in the work environment, owning sexuality, reproductive rights, domestic violence, and rape.[26] Although second-wave feminism was similarly shaped by middle-class, educated white women, it also saw the emergence of women of color into the discussion.[27] In 1973, African American feminists convened at the National Black Feminist Organization, discussing the same issues that the rest of the feminist movement was addressing.[28] Although a separate organization, it gave both white and African American feminists alike a common ground.[28] In this way, the second wave also began to incorporate women of color, whereas the first wave focused mostly on white, cisgender, middle-class women.[29]

The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir, stands as one of the most striking examples of the essentialization of women in the figure of the white bourgeoise mother and hence disregard for other forms of oppression such as race or sexuality. Nevertheless, this book has appeared as a landmark which has enabled other more complex theories to emerge.[30][31] During the second and third-wave feminist periods, women of color emerged into the feminist literary space, arguing that feminist movements were essentializing the experiences of women. Among such feminists were bell hooks. bell hooks is recognized for writing about the struggles that Black women experienced as well as emphasizing that the feminist movement was exclusionary towards those women by virtue of its inattention to the interactions between race, gender, and class.[32] hooks argued that white women should recognize the fact that they, like ethnic minority men, occupied a position of being both oppressed while also being oppressors. In an attempt to shun the critiques addressed by scholars from minorities exposing second-wave feminism, the latter sought to divert attention by exposing the exclusionary practices of second-wave feminism. This has been criticized by many scholars which have labeled it under several names such as missionary, imperialist, or western feminism.[33][34]

Led by Generation X, third-wave feminism began in the 1990s when issues surrounding sexuality, such as pornography were brought to the forefront.[35] One of the reasons for the split in the second wave was due to differences regarding how women should embrace their sexuality, leading to different views on sex work and pornography.[36] Third-wave feminists coined the term "riot grrls" which represented strong, independent and passionate feminists in this time period. "Grrls" were typically described as angry feminists fighting against sexism.[37] The third wave was inspired by the post-modern society, in which women worked to reclaim their own power over derogatory words men have used to shame them, like 'whore' and 'slut'. The third wave was also created in order to address social issues the current generation was facing.[38] This also worked to advocate for women's sexual liberation and expression of gender identity.[35] This wave also included even more women of color and women from different classes than previous waves.[35] When comparing the second and third wave, the third wave highlighted intersectionality. [39]

During third-wave feminism and at the start of fourth-wave feminism after 2010, feminists sometimes emphasize intersectional perspectives in their work.[40] Despite this, some have argued that feminist media continues to overrepresent the struggles of straight, cisgender, able-bodied, middle class, white women.[41][27] Nevertheless, in recent years, authors like Kimberlé Crenshaw have developed the theory of intersectionality, a clear opposition to white feminism. Rather than analyzing society from a unique perspective of race or gender, she calls for a more complex analysis of systems of oppression using multiple and overlapping lenses such as race, gender, sexuality, etc.[42]

An example of a view of feminism that claims that women's issues can be separated from issues of class, race, ability in present day can be seen in the work of Emily Shire,[43] politics editor at Bustle and an op-ed contributor for The New York Times. Shire argues that feminism excludes some women who do not share political viewpoints when it takes positions on Israel and Palestine, efforts to raise the minimum wage, and efforts to block the construction of oil pipelines.[44] Shire's position contrasts with intersectional feminist activists who view pay equity, social justice, and international human rights as essential and inseparable commitments of feminism, as articulated in the Day Without a Woman platform that "[recognizes] the enormous value that women of all backgrounds add to our socio-economic system – while receiving lower wages and experiencing greater inequities, vulnerability to discrimination, sexual harassment, and job insecurity".[45] While Shire advocates for a feminism that achieves inclusivity by avoiding political positions so as to not alienate women who disagree with those positions,[44] organizers of the Women's March hold the principle that "women have intersecting identities" necessitating a movement that focuses on a "comprehensive agenda".[46]

Another example of controversy stems from the beliefs of some feminists that the Islamic practices of women wearing hijabs, burqas, and niqābs are oppressive towards women. This has been labeled white feminism. Many Muslim women have spoken out in defense of their religious dress practices.[47] One example of this belief was seen in the Islamic scarf controversy in France where it was argued by many French feminists that the Islamic veil threatens women's autonomy, while many Muslim women say that it is a choice and that denying the choice only restricts a woman's freedom. They say that some wear it as a personal commitment; others reject the notion that the veil is a religious sign.[48] Some Muslim women see the burqa as freeing, because it enabled them to be in the public sphere while still observing moral and religious requirements.[49] In her article, "Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving?" Lila Abu-Lughod states that Muslim find comfort through their burqas, as they provide "mobile homes."[50]

Trans-exclusionary radical feminism has also been a topic of discussion. Feminism requires fighting for women's rights, but trans-exclusionary radical feminists do not see trans women as women. Many of them argue against trans women changing their sex on legal documents, say that lesbian as an identity is disappearing, that trans men are not men, and that gay children need protection when they think they are transgender.[51] Critics, especially within the LGBT community, have expressed their discontent with these arguments. They feel that privileged white women who make these arguments will make trans women, especially trans women of color, more at risk for discrimination and that they fail to consider many other factors that trans women have to deal with.[52]

Women of color have historically made several attempts to bring the theory of intersectionality to the awareness of judicial courts in the United States. Following the Civil Rights Act of 1964, discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin was legally prohibited. However, scholar Virginia Wei observed that the Title VII addition to the Civil Rights Act--prohibiting employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin--"compartmentalizes discrimination into...discrete categories",[53] making the claims brought by ethnic minority women extremely niche in relation to the Act. The lack of intersectionality present in white feminism is mirrored in the judicial system and has been used to withhold legal justice from non-white women.

1976: In DeGraffenreid v. GENERAL MOTORS ASSEMBLY , five Black women claimed to be discriminated as Black women by their employer, General Motors. Because the plaintiffs were representing the Black female employees and not simply women employees or Black employees, the court found that they could not compound the claims of racial and sexual discrimination due to the lack of scope of Title VII.[54]

1976: In Payne v. Travenol Laboratories Inc., two black women intended to file a suit against their employer as representatives for all Black employees. The defendant, Travenol Laboratories Inc., petitioned that the women shall not be able to represent Black men, and the court agreed in favor of Travenol's request.[54]

These similar cases, occurring in the same year, have vastly contradictory outcomes; in Degraffenreid, the Black women defendants were not allowed to represent only Black women, and in Payne, it was their only option.[54] These cases are prominent examples of the lack of legal protection of Black women and women of color on the basis of their intersecting identities.

It is not until 1998 that a judicial court recognized the compounded nature of discrimination based on intersectionality.

1998: In Lam v. University of Hawaii, Vietnamese woman Maivan Lam alleged that the University of Hawaii discriminated against her on the basis of her race, sex, and national origin.[55] The court sided with Lam, acknowledging that "Asian women are subjected to...stereotypes that are not shared by Asian men or white women".[56]

There are calls for reformation of Title VII to allow intersectional discrimination claims in an effort to protect marginalized populations, but this suggestion has not been acted on.[54] Until Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 expands its understanding and inclusion of intersectional discrimination claims, there will continue to be more DeGraffenreids and Paynes.

Sojourner Truth (1797–1883)

Sojourner Truth, 1870

Born into slavery and escaping to freedom in 1826, Sojourner Truth was an influential human rights activist that critiqued the ostracism of Black women from social justice advocacy movements. One of her most famous speeches, "Ain't I a Woman?", brought attention to the compounded discrimination faced by Black women and the hypocrisy of exclusionary feminist and abolitionist crusades.[57]

Ida B. Wells (1862–1931)

Ida B. Wells-Barnett, 1893

Ida B. Wells was an outspoken activist who consistently confronted white feminists regarding the lack of intersectionality in their calls for equality and social justice. Despite being repudiated from international women's suffragist movements, Wells continued her activism through the creation of the National Association of Colored Women's Club in 1896.[58]

Angela Y. Davis (b. 1944)

Angela Davis demonstrates for the Soledad brothers, 1970

Angela Davis practiced vigorous advocacy on behalf of Black women from a young age. One of the few Black students admitted to Brandeis University, she attributes her true passion for social justice advocacy to her time studying with philosopher Herbert Marcuse, who first introduced Davis to Marxist social theory.[59] Fueling her work is the belief that capitalism is the root of oppression of minorities, and the belief that only when all oppressed groups are liberated that one oppressed group be liberated.

Gloria Jean Watkins, also known as bell hooks (1952–2021)

Gloria Jean Watkins, more prominently known as bell hooks, was an author, activist, social critic, and professor. She was best known for her written work, but her activism extended far beyond academia. Her pseudonym, bell hooks, was used to honor Watkins' late grandmother as well as shifting the focus of the reader to the content of the work instead of the name of the author--hence the lack of capitalization.[60] Perhaps her most influential work is her book Ain't I a Woman?: Black women and feminism, which analyzes the mistreatment of Black women throughout American history.

Kimberlé Crenshaw (b. 1959)

Kimberlé Crenshaw, 2018

The mother of intersectionality, Kimberlé Crenshaw, is a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, and one of the most influential feminist scholars of this generation.[61] Her work stands as the foundation of intersectional theory; this framework forever changing the course of gender studies literature in academia.

• Tapada limeña
• Feminism and racism
• Feminism
• Femonationalism
• Homonationalism
• Multiracial feminism
• intersectionality