Vaginal stenosis

Vaginal stenosis is an abnormal condition in which the vagina becomes narrower and shorter due to the formation of fibrous tissue.[1][2] Vaginal stenosis can contribute to sexual dysfunction, dyspareunia and make pelvic exams difficult and painful.[1] The lining of the vagina may also be thinner and drier and contain scar tissue. This condition can result in pain during sexual intercourse or a pelvic exam. Vaginal stenosis is often caused by radiation therapy to the pelvis, an episiotomy,[3] or other forms of surgical procedures.[4][5][6] Chemotherapy can also increase the likelihood of developing vaginal stenosis.[7] Vaginal stenosis can also result from genital reconstructive surgery in people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.[8]

Signs and symptoms

Common indicators of vaginal stenosis include pain and bleeding during sexual intercourse along with other types of sexual dysfunction.[1] This can lead to challenges such as difficulty engaging in intercourse and decreased sex drive.[9] Severe forms of vaginal stenosis can be associated with a complete inability to participate in sexual intercourse.[1]

Atrophy, scarring, and damage to the vaginal tissue due to vaginal stenosis can lead to dryness, inflammation, and decreased elasticity of the tissue.[10]

Lasting effects of vaginal stenosis could include impacts on psychological well-being in addition to physical limitations.[1] Symptoms can worsen from post treatment ovarian failure or menopausal status, leading to reduced lubrication and increased thinning of the vaginal tissue.[1]

Causes

Radiation-induced

Uterine, vaginal, anal, rectal and cervical cancers are often treated with pelvic radiation therapy (RT), most commonly external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) or brachytherapy.[1] Radiation-induced vaginal stenosis can be a side effect of treatment.[11] It is one of the most prevalent side effects, affecting about one third of people undergoing pelvic radiation therapy.[12][13] Radiation-induced stenosis can be a late reaction to treatment. Damage to the vaginal epithelium causes abnormal collagen production that leads to atrophy, loss of muscle, decreased blood flow, hypoxia, and fibrosis. Pallor, adhesions, and fragility can be observed along with loss of elasticity.[1] These can all contribute to sexual dysfunction that affects more than half of gynecological cancer survivors.[10] Some people who have reduced ovarian function and an estrogen shortage after RT can have an even thinner vaginal mucosal lining that worsens vaginal stenosis.[10]

Risk factors

While the severity of vaginal stenosis depends largely on the type of radiation therapy received, several risk factors can contribute to the development of vaginal stenosis. People over the age of 50 with cervical cancer tend to have a higher risk of vaginal stenosis from radiation therapy.[10] Tobacco use is also associated with a higher risk of vaginal stenosis.[10] There is also a high correlation between vaginal stenosis and vaginal pallor reactions, which is when the mucous membranes thin and dry out, leading to inflammation and fibrosis.[10][14]

Surgical procedures

Several types of surgical procedure are hypothesized to cause vaginal stenosis. Episiotomies, which are surgical incisions sometimes used to assist childbirth, can lead to narrowing of the vaginal opening and long-term dyspareunia: there is approximately 13% chance of experiencing dyspareunia for at least 6 months after having undergone a routine episiotomy.[15] When the tissue from the episiotomy does not heal properly, complications can include mucosal damage and scarring,[16] which can contribute to the development of vaginal stenosis. Vaginal stenosis is the most common post-operative complication in people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia who have genital reconstructive surgery in infancy or childhood.[17] Vaginal stenosis can be an immediate complication or may arise later in adolescence.[8] Additionally, in people undergoing a male-to female gender affirmation surgical procedure, such as vaginoplasty, vaginal stenosis has been show to be a common post-surgical complication.[18]

Diagnosis

There are currently several grading scales that exist to assess vaginal stenosis but none have been well established. Two common grading scales are the National Cancer Institute's Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) v4.0 and the Late Effects in Normal Tissues-Subjective, Objective, Management and Analytic Score (LENT-SOMA).[1] The CTCAE v4.0 assesses vaginal strictures based on three grades based upon shortening or narrowing of the vagina, its interference with physical examination, and its interference with use of tampons or sexual activity.[1] However, this scale is not specific to just vaginal injuries alone.[10] The LENT-SOMA grading scale for vaginal stenosis is based on the assessment of subjective symptoms, analytical tests, and observed clinical manifestations.[1] This scale was invented by the European Organization for the Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) along with the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) from the US.[10]

The lack of a well-established grading scale has potentially led to poor vaginal dilator therapy and long-term vaginal stenosis.[19] Vaginal stenosis is most often diagnosed with subjective parameters.[19] These subjective parameters in combination with the variety of different grading scales used, cannot be interchanged in clinical practice.[20] This makes it harder to properly diagnose the condition and establish a standard treatment.[20]

Treatment

Vaginal Dilator Therapy (VDT)

Stenosis of the vagina is typically treated with vaginal dilator therapy (VDT), but evidence is lacking for its efficacy.[21][22] Vaginal dilators are smooth, cylindrical-shaped devices that promote stretching and relaxation of the vaginal tissue.[23] Vaginal dilator therapy requires a consistent routine and may cause physical and/or psychological discomfort, which makes adherence to treatment difficult.[19] It may be difficult to evaluate the efficacy of vaginal dilation therapy as measures of sexual function and quality of life are hard to quantify and control for.[21] Optimal duration of vaginal dilator therapy and its improvements on sexual function and cancer-related outcomes remain unclear.[24]

Although there is no high level evidence, many guidelines and reviews suggest the use of vaginal dilator therapy after pelvic radiation therapy.[10] It is believed that this therapy stretches vaginal tissues and the vaginal canal, leading to epithelial cell growth, and decreasing potential circumferential fibrosis.[10] Some studies have even suggested correlations between VDT and preventing risk of severe vaginal stenosis.[10]

Some studies have suggested positive patient outcomes when VDT was coupled with greater length of dilation duration.[23] Using VDT with meditation and soothing music has also been shown to increase effectiveness, though evidence for this is not high grade.[23] Regular psychosocial support and regular follow up visits should occur in order to support this therapy and optimize the treatment.[1]

Other treatments

Recent treatment advances include local hyaluronic acid application, laser therapy, and vaginal estrogen treatment but further investigation is needed.[10] Hyaluronic acid helps treat vaginal stenosis by retaining moisture to promote vaginal tissue repair.[25] There are currently no known contraindications and is commonly used in clinical practice due to its high safety profile.[10]

Laser therapy has been shown to improve symptoms for people with menopausal genital atrophy, but there are currently not many studies on its effect on people with radiotherapy-induced vaginal stenosis.[10] A 2020 study demonstrated an improvement in vaginal length as well as the Vaginal Health Index, though more studies are needed to establish efficacy.[26]

There are limited studies around vaginal estrogen therapy in people with radiotherapy-induced vaginal stenosis due to concerns around an increased risk of tumor recurrence.[10] Similarly, there has been one study conducted that suggests people treated with high dose radiation therapy had a lower likelihood to respond to estrogen treatment.[10]

Epidemiology

The reported incidence of radiotherapy-induced vaginal stenosis varies widely, ranging from 1.2% to 88%.[10] This is due to past studies being limited to small groups as well as variability due to personal factors such as: type of cancer, age, dose and mode of radiation therapy (EBRT or brachytherapy).[1] In addition, symptoms may not occur until a year after radiation therapy and can increase in severity over the course of three years.[10] Vaginal stenosis may also be underreported due to stigma and discomfort around discussion of sexual dysfunction.[1] The estimated incidence of vaginal stenosis in people undergoing radiation therapy is 50% for people with endometrial cancer and 60% for people with cervical cancer.[10] The incidence of vaginal stenosis in people undergoing radiation therapy for anal cancer or colorectal cancer is not well-reported, but is estimated to be up to 80%.[10][27]

See also

References
  1. Morris L, Do V, Chard J, Brand AH (2017). "Radiation-induced vaginal stenosis: current perspectives". International Journal of Women's Health. 9: 273–279. doi:10.2147/IJWH.S106796. PMC 5422455. PMID 28496367.
  2. "Vaginal stenosis". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  3. Venes D (2017-01-25). Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary - Episiotomy. F.A. Davis. ISBN 9780803659407.
  4. "Vaginal Outlet Stenosis Repair". www.atlasofpelvicsurgery.com. Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  5. "NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms -Vaginal Stenosis". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2018-03-14. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  6. Rosa LM, Hammerschmidt KS, Radünz V, Ilha P, Tomasi AV, Valcarenghi RV, et al. (2016). "Evaluation and Classification of Vaginal Stenosis After Brachytherapy". Texto & Contexto - Enfermagem. 25 (2). doi:10.1590/0104-07072016003010014. ISSN 0104-0707.
  7. "How to Manage Vaginal Stenosis" (PDF). Uhn.ca. Retrieved 2022-03-14.
  8. Merke DP, Poppas DP (2013). "Management of adolescents with congenital adrenal hyperplasia". The Lancet. Diabetes & Endocrinology. 1 (4): 341–352. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(13)70138-4. PMC 4163910. PMID 24622419.
  9. Huffman LB, Hartenbach EM, Carter J, Rash JK, Kushner DM (2016). "Maintaining sexual health throughout gynecologic cancer survivorship: A comprehensive review and clinical guide". Gynecologic Oncology. 140 (2): 359–368. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2015.11.010. PMC 4835814. PMID 26556768.
  10. Varytė G, Bartkevičienė D (2021). "Pelvic Radiation Therapy Induced Vaginal Stenosis: A Review of Current Modalities and Recent Treatment Advances". Medicina. 57 (4): 336. doi:10.3390/medicina57040336. PMC 8066324. PMID 33915994.
  11. Harkenrider MM, Block AM, Alektiar KM, Gaffney DK, Jones E, Klopp A, et al. (2017). "American Brachytherapy Task Group Report: Adjuvant vaginal brachytherapy for early-stage endometrial cancer: A comprehensive review". Brachytherapy. 16 (1): 95–108. doi:10.1016/j.brachy.2016.04.005. PMC 5612425. PMID 27260082.
  12. Clinical trial number NCT03090217 for "Pelvic Physiotherapy in the Prevention of Vaginal Stenosis Secondary to the Radiotherapy" at ClinicalTrials.gov This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  13. "Management of radiation induced vaginal stenosis eviQ; (Australian, evidence-based health information)". www.eviq.org.au. Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  14. Yoshida K, Yamazaki H, Nakamura S, Masui K, Kotsuma T, Akiyama H, et al. (2015). "Role of vaginal pallor reaction in predicting late vaginal stenosis after high-dose-rate brachytherapy in treatment-naive patients with cervical cancer". Journal of Gynecologic Oncology. 26 (3): 179–184. doi:10.3802/jgo.2015.26.3.179. PMC 4510333. PMID 25925294.
  15. Jiang H, Qian X, Carroli G, Garner P, et al. (Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group) (February 2017). "Selective versus routine use of episiotomy for vaginal birth". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017 (2): CD000081. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000081.pub3. PMC 5449575. PMID 28176333.
  16. "Episiotomy Complications and Side Effects". www.birthinjuryhelpcenter.org. Retrieved 2022-08-01.
  17. Wang LC, Poppas DP (2017). "Surgical outcomes and complications of reconstructive surgery in the female congenital adrenal hyperplasia patient: What every endocrinologist should know". The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Genetic Steroid Disorders. 165 (Pt A): 137–144. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.03.021. PMID 26995108. S2CID 45876518.
  18. Li JS, Crane CN, Santucci RA (2021). "Vaginoplasty tips and tricks". International Braz J Urol. 47 (2): 263–273. doi:10.1590/S1677-5538.IBJU.2020.0338. PMC 7857744. PMID 32840336.
  19. Haddad NC, Soares Brollo LC, Pinho Oliveira MA, Bernardo-Filho M (2021). "Diagnostic Methods for Vaginal Stenosis and Compliance to Vaginal Dilator Use: A Systematic Review". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 18 (3): 493–514. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.12.013. PMID 33526400. S2CID 231766638.
  20. de Morais Siqueira T, Derchain S, Juliato CR, Pinto E Silva MP, Machado HC, Brito LG (2022). "Vaginal stenosis in women with cervical or endometrial cancer after pelvic radiotherapy: a cross-sectional study of vaginal measurements, risk for sexual dysfunction and quality of life". International Urogynecology Journal. 33 (3): 637–649. doi:10.1007/s00192-021-04798-8. PMID 33891152. S2CID 233355491.
  21. Miles T, Johnson N, et al. (Cochrane Gynaecological, Neuro-oncology and Orphan Cancer Group) (2014). "Vaginal dilator therapy for women receiving pelvic radiotherapy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9): CD007291. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007291.pub3. PMC 6513398. PMID 25198150.
  22. White ID, Faithfull S (2006). "Vaginal dilation associated with pelvic radiotherapy: a UK survey of current practice". International Journal of Gynecological Cancer. 16 (3): 1140–1146. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1438.2006.00452.x. PMID 16803497. S2CID 12423507.
  23. Liu M, Juravic M, Mazza G, Krychman ML (2021). "Vaginal Dilators: Issues and Answers". Sexual Medicine Reviews. 9 (2): 212–220. doi:10.1016/j.sxmr.2019.11.005. PMID 32014450. S2CID 211026055.
  24. Damast S, Jeffery DD, Son CH, Hasan Y, Carter J, Lindau ST, Jhingran A (2019). "Literature Review of Vaginal Stenosis and Dilator Use in Radiation Oncology". Practical Radiation Oncology. 9 (6): 479–491. doi:10.1016/j.prro.2019.07.001. PMC 7944435. PMID 31302301.
  25. Gerdin B, Hällgren R (1997). "Dynamic role of hyaluronan (HYA) in connective tissue activation and inflammation". Journal of Internal Medicine. 242 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.00173.x. PMID 9260566. S2CID 30214069.
  26. Perrone AM, Tesei M, Ferioli M, De Terlizzi F, Della Gatta AN, Boussedra S, et al. (2020). "Results of a Phase I-II Study on Laser Therapy for Vaginal Side Effects after Radiotherapy for Cancer of Uterine Cervix or Endometrium". Cancers. 12 (6): 1639. doi:10.3390/cancers12061639. PMC 7352893. PMID 32575821.
  27. Miles T. International guidelines on vaginal dilation after pelvic radiotherapy. Brook Hill, Woodstock, Oxon: Owen Mumford Ltd. 2012.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.