Bahram II

His theophoric name "Bahram" is the New Persian form of the Middle Persian Warahrān (also spelled Wahrām), which is derived from the Old Iranian Vṛθragna.[1] The Avestan equivalent was Verethragna, the name of the old Iranian god of victory, whilst the Parthian version was *Warθagn.[1] The name is transliterated in Greek as Baranes,[2] whilst the Armenian transliteration is Vahagn/Vrām.[1] The name is attested in Georgian as Baram[3] and Latin as Vararanes.[4]

Gold dinar of Shapur I

Bahram II was the eldest son of Bahram I (r. 271–274), the fourth king (shah) of the Sasanian dynasty, and the grandson of the prominent shah Shapur I (r. 240–270).[5] The Sasanians had supplanted the Parthian Arsacid Empire as the sovereigns of Iran in 224, when Ardashir I (Bahram II's great-grandfather) defeated and killed its last monarch Artabanus IV (r. 213–224) at the Battle of Hormozdgan.[6] A terminus post quem for Bahram II's birth is c. 262, since that is the date of Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht,[7] which mentions the rest of the royal family but not him.[8] His father, Bahram I, although the eldest son of Shapur I, was not considered a candidate for succession, probably due to his mother's lowly origin. She was either a minor queen or perhaps even a concubine.[9][10] Shapur I died in 270, and was succeeded by his son Hormizd I, who only reigned for a year before he died. Bahram I, with the aid of the powerful Zoroastrian priest Kartir, ascended the throne.[11] He then made a settlement with his brother Narseh to give up his entitlement to the throne in return for the governorship of the important frontier province of Armenia, which was constantly the source of conflict between the Roman and Sasanian Empires.[9] Nevertheless, Narseh still most likely viewed Bahram I as a usurper.[11]

Map of the southeastern Sasanian provinces (corresponding to the present-day lands of eastern Iran, western Afghanistan, and western Pakistan

Bahram was briefly given the governorship of the southeastern provinces of Sakastan, Hind and Turgistan, which Narseh had previously governed.[12][13] Sakastan was far away from the imperial court in Ctesiphon, and ever since its conquest the Sasanians had found it difficult to control.[14] As a result, the province had since its early days functioned as a form of vassal kingdom, ruled by princes from the Sasanian family, who held the title of sakanshah ("King of the Saka").[14] Bahram I's reign lasted briefly, ending in September 274 with his death.[11] Bahram II, still in his teens,[12] succeeded him as shah; he was probably aided by Kartir to ascend the throne instead of Narseh.[5][15] This most likely frustrated Narseh, who held the title of Vazurg Šāh Arminān ("Great King of Armenia"), which was used by the heir to the throne.[16]

Bahram II's accession is mentioned in the narratives included in the history of the medieval Iranian historian al-Tabari;

Before Bahram II, the Sasanian shahs had been "lukewarm Zoroastrians."[15] He displayed a particular fondness to his name-deity by giving his son the name of Bahram, and by selecting the wings of the god's bird, Verethragna, as the central component of his crown.[11] Bahram II, like his father, received the influential Zoroastrian priest Kartir well. He saw him as his mentor, and handed out several honors to him, giving him the rank of grandee (wuzurgan), and appointing him as the supreme judge (dadwar) of the whole empire, which implies that thenceforth priests were given the office of judge.[11][28] Kartir was also appointed the steward of the Anahid fire-temple at Istakhr, which had originally been under the care of the Sasanian family.[11][16] The Sasanian kings thus lost much of their religious authority in the empire.[16] The clergy from now on served as judges all over the country, with court cases most likely being based on Zoroastrian jurisprudence, with the exception of when representatives of other religions had conflicts with each other.[16]

It is thus under Bahram II that Kartir unquestionably becomes a powerful figure in the empire; the latter claimed on his inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht that he "struck down" the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as the Christians, Jews, Mandaeans, Manichaeans, and Buddhists.[15] According to the modern historian Parvaneh Pourshariati: "it is not clear, however, to what extent Kartir's declarations reflect the actual implementation, or for that matter, success, of the measures he is supposed to have promoted."[29] Indeed, Jewish and Christian sources, for example, make no mention of persecutions during this period.[29][30]

Gold dinar of Bahram II alone, Herat mint

Starting with Bahram II, all the Sasanian shahs are portrayed with earrings on their coins.[31] He is the first shah to have wings on his crown, which refers to the wings of the god's bird, Verethragna.[32] Like his predecessors (with the exception of Ardashir I and Shapur I, whose legends were slightly different), Bahram II's legend on his coinage was "the Mazda-worshiping, divine Bahram, King of Kings of Iran(ians) and non-Iran(ians), whose image/brilliance is from the gods."[33][34][lower-alpha 2]

Several coin types were minted during Bahram II's reign; one type imitates him alone; another with him and a female figure; a third one with Bahram II and an unbearded youngster wearing a high tiara (known as a Median bonnet); and a fourth one shows Bahram II with the female figure and the unbearded youngster all together.[11][35][36] The female figure is wearing different headdress on some of the coins, sometimes with a boar, griffin, horse or eagle.[37] The precise meaning of these variations is unclear.[37]

As the coins' legends contain no information regarding the status of these characters, it is difficult to analyze them.[36] The unbearded youngster is usually understood as being the crown prince Bahram III,[38][11] while the female figure is usually labelled as Bahram II's queen Shapurdukhtak, who was his cousin.[16][36][37] If the supposition is correct, this would make Bahram II the first (and last) shah to have coins minted of his family.[16] According to the Iranologist Touraj Daryaee, "this is an interesting feature of Bahram II in that he was very much concerned to leave a portrait of his family which incidentally gives us information about the court and the Persian concept of the royal banquet (bazm)."[16] The modern historian Jamsheed Choksy has attempted to establish that the female figure in reality illustrates the goddess Anahita,[lower-alpha 3] whilst the unbearded youngster illustrates Verethragna.[37] The reverse shows the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants.[11]

• 
  Drachma of Bahram II with his queen Shapurdukhtak
• 
  Drachma of Bahram II with his son and heir Bahram III
• 
  Drachma of Bahram II with Shapurdukhtak and Bahram III

The Bishapur relief of Bahram II on horseback, being met by a group of envoys, presumably Arabs

Various rock reliefs were carved under Bahram II; one of them being at Guyom, 27 km northwest of Shiraz, where Bahram is portrayed standing alone.[11] An additional relief at Sar Mashhad, south of Kazerun, portrays Bahram as a hunter: a dead lion reclines at his feet, and he thrusts his sword into a second lion as it attacks him.[11] His queen Shapurdukhtak is holding his right hand in a signal of safeguard, whilst Kartir and another figure, most likely a prince, are watching.[11] The scenery has been the subject of several symbolic and metaphorical meanings, thought it is most likely supposed to portray a simple royal display of braveness during a real-life hunt.[11] An inscription of Kartir is underneath the relief.[11] A third relief at Sarab-e Bahram, close to Nurabad, and 40 km north of Bishapur, portrays Bahram II facing, with Kartir and Papak, the governor of Iberia, to his left, and two other grandees to his right.[11]

A fourth relief, at Bishapur, portrays Bahram mounted on a horse, whilst facing an Iranian grandee who is escorting a group of six men resembling Arabs in their clothing, arriving with horses and dromedaries, presumably as tribute.[11] The historical circumstance of the scene remains uncertain.[11] A fifth relief, at Naqsh-e Rostam, portrays Bahram II standing whilst being surrounded by his family members and attendants; to his left are the sculptures of Shapurdukhtak, a prince, the crown prince Bahram III, Kartir, and Narseh.[11] To his right are the sculptures of Papak, and two other grandees.[11]

A sixth relief, portraying an equestrian combat, was carved directly below the tomb of the Achaemenid King of Kings Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BCE).[11] The relief has two panels. The top panel depicts Bahram II's war against Carus, which he claims as a victory. The lower panel depicts Bahram II's war with Hormizd I Kushanshah.[11][18] A seventh relief, at Tang-e (or Sarab-e) Qandil, depicts a divine investiture scene, with Bahram II receiving a flower from Anahita.[41] Bahram II also erected two rock reliefs in Barm-e Delak: the first depicts Bahram II giving a flower to Shapurdukhtak; the second depicts Bahram II making gesture of piety, whilst being offered a diadem by a courtier.[41]

• 
  Rock relief of Bahram II at Guyom
• 
  Rock relief at Sar Mashhad, showing Bahram II slaying two lions
• 
  The Sarab-e Bahram relief of Bahram II surrounded by grandees, Kartir and Papak being on his left
• 
  Court scene at Naqsh-e Rostam
• 
  Tang-e (or Sarab-e) Qandil relief depicting a divine investiture scene of Bahram II receiving a flower by the goddess Anahita
• 
  First Barm-e Delak relief of Bahram II giving a flower to Shapurdukhtak
• 
  Second Barm-e Delak relief of Bahram II making gesture of piety, whilst being offered a diadem by a courtier

During the reign of Bahram II, art in Sasanian Iran flourished, notably in the portrayals of the shah and his courtiers.[11] He is the first and only shah to have a woman illustrated on his coins, apart from the 7th-century Sasanian queen Boran (r. 630–630, 631–632).[42] The modern historian Matthew P. Canepa calls Bahram II a relatively weak shah, whose shortscomings allowed Kartir to take over some of the royal privileges.[43] Military wise, however, Bahram II was more successful, putting an end to the disturbances in Khuzestan and the east, and repelling the Romans from Mesopotamia.[44][45] According to Daryaee and Rezakhani, Bahram II's reign "appears to be one of stability and increasing introspection for the Sasanian administration."[46]

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