European integration

The question of how to avoid wars between the nation-states was essential for the first theories. Federalism and functionalism proposed the containment of the nation-state, while transactionalism sought to theorise the conditions for the stabilisation of the nation-state system. Early federalism was more like a political movement calling for European federation by various political actors, for example, Altiero Spinelli calling for a federal Europe in his Ventotene Manifesto, and Paul Valéry envisioning European civilization for unity.[12] State sovereignty was an issue for federalists who hoped political organizations at higher regional level would solve the issue.[10] Representative scholar of functionalism is David Mitrany, who also sees states and their sovereignty as core problem that one should restrain states to prevent future wars. However, Mitrany disagreed with regional integration as he viewed it as mere replication of state-model.[10] Transactionalism, on the other hand, sees increased cross-border exchanges as promoting regional integration so that the risk of war is reduced.[13]

European integration theory initially focused on explaining integration process of supranational institution-building.[10] One of the most influential theories of European integration is neofunctionalism, influenced by functionalist ideas, developed by Ernst B. Haas (1958) and further investigated by Leon Lindberg (1963). This theory focuses on spillovers of integration, where well-integrated and interdependent areas led to more integration.[14][15] Neofunctionalism well captures the spillover from the European Coal and Steel Community to the European Economic Community established in the 1957 Treaties of Rome. Transfers of loyalties from the national level to the supranational level is expected to occur as integration progresses.[16]

The other big influential theory in Integration Studies is Intergovernmentalism, advanced by Stanley Hoffmann after the Empty Chair Crisis by French President Charles De Gaulle in the 1960s. Intergovernmentalism and later, Liberal Intergovernmentalism, developed in the 1980s by Andrew Moravcsik focus on governmental actors' impacts that are enhanced by supranational institutions but not restrained from them.[10] The important debate between neofunctionalism and (liberal) intergovernmentalism still remains central in understanding the development and setbacks of the European integration.

As the empirical world has changed, so have the theories and thus the understanding of European Integration. The second generation of integration theorists focused on the importance of institutions and their impacts on both integration process and European governance development.[10] The second phase brought in perspectives from comparative politics in addition to traditional International Relations theoretical references. Studies attempted to understand what kind of polity the EU is and how it operates.[10] For example, new theory multi-level governance (MLG) was developed to understand the workings and development of the EU.

The third phase of integration theory marked a return of International Relations theory with the rise of critical and constructivist approaches in the 1990s.[10] Perspectives from social constructivists, post-structuralists, critical theories, feminist theories are incorporated in integration theories to conceptualize European integration process of widening and deepening.[10]

All member states of the European Union (EU) are members of the:

• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Secretariat: Vienna, Austria
• Council of Europe (CoE), HQ: Strasbourg, France
• European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC), HQ: Neuilly-sur-Seine/Paris, France
• European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (Eurocontrol), HQ: Brussels, Belgium
• European Committee for Standardization (CEN), HQ: Brussels, Belgium
• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), HQ: Sophia Antipolis, France
• European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), HQ: Brussels, Belgium
• European Union Customs Union (EUCU)
• European Olympic Committees (EOC), HQ: Rome, Italy
• European Patent Convention (EPC)/European Patent Organisation (EPOrg)
• European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC, Euratom)
• Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA)
• European Common Aviation Area (ECAA)
• European Higher Education Area (EHEA) – Belgium as Flemish Community and French Community, i.e. the German-speaking Community of Belgium is not included.

have organizations that are members of the:

• European Broadcasting Union (EBU), HQ: Geneva, Switzerland
• Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), HQ: Nyon, Switzerland
• European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity, HQ: Brussels, Belgium

have organisations that are members, associated partners or observers of the

• European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas, HQ: Brussels, Belgium

are located in the European Broadcasting Area (EBA)

Fourteen states are part of the Eurozone and NATO. These are Belgium, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain.

They are all members of or take part in:

• the European Union
• the European Economic Area (EEA)
• the Schengen Area
• the European Defence Agency (EDA)
• the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)

Of these states several take part in further organisations, or have other basic structural things in common, but some are outside.

France is part of all of these groups, and Belgium and Germany take part in all where at least half of the 14 member states participate.

Some agreements that are mostly related to countries of the European continent, are also valid in territories outside the continent.

Not listed below are agreements if their scope is beyond geographic Europe only because the agreement includes:

• Territories of transcontinental countries: Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia contain some territory in Europe and some in Asia
• The EU uses bilateral Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreements as an integration tool.[18]
• Special territories of European countries, e.g. Special territories of member states of the European Union
• Cyprus, which is a member of the Council of Europe and several other agreements

List:

• NATO contains USA and Canada, but has a European focus, Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty describes how non-member states may join: "The Parties may [...] invite any other European State in a position to further the principles of this Treaty"[19]
• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) contains the United States, Canada, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Mongolia
• European Broadcasting Union (EBU) contains North African and Middle East countries
• European Olympic Committees (EOC) contains Israel

Several regional integration efforts have effectively promoted intergovernmental cooperation and reduced the possibility of regional armed conflict. Other initiatives have removed barriers to free trade in European regions, and increased the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders.

Since the end of the Second World War, the following organisations have been established in the Nordic region:

The Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers is a co-operation forum for the parliaments and governments of the Nordic countries created in February 1953. It includes the states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and their autonomous territories (Greenland, Faroe Islands and Åland).

The Nordic Passport Union, created in 1954 but implemented on 1 May 1958, establishes free movement across borders without passports for the countries' citizens. It comprises Denmark, Sweden and Norway as foundational states; further, it includes Finland and Iceland since 24 September 1965, and the Danish autonomous territories of Faroe Islands since 1 January 1966.

The following political and/or economic organisations have been in the Baltic region in the post-modern era:

The Baltic Assembly aims to promote co-operation between the parliaments of the Baltic states, namely the Republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The organisation was planned in Vilnius on 1 December 1990, and the three nations agreed to its structure and rules on 13 June 1994.

The Baltic Free Trade Area (BAFTA) was a trade agreement between Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. It was signed on 13 September 1993 and came into force on 1 April 1994. The agreement was later extended to apply also to agricultural products, effective from 1 January 1997. BAFTA ceased to exist when its members joined the EU on 1 May 2004.

The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) was founded in 1992 to promote intergovernmental cooperation among Baltic Sea countries in questions concerning economy, civil society development, human rights issues, and nuclear and radiation safety. It has 12 members including Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland (since 1995), Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the European Commission.

In 2009 the European Council approved the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (EUSBSR) following a communication from the European Commission. The EUSBSR was the first macro-regional strategy in Europe. The Strategy aims to reinforce cooperation within the Baltic Sea Region, to address challenges together, and to promote balanced development in the Region. The Strategy contributes to major EU policies, including Europe 2020, and reinforces integration within the Region.[20]

Since the end of the First World War the following unions have been set in the Low Countries region:

The Benelux is an economic and political union between Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. On 5 September 1944, a treaty establishing the Benelux Customs Union was signed. It entered into force in 1948, and ceased to exist on 1 November 1960, when it was replaced by the Benelux Economic Union after a treaty signed in The Hague on 3 February 1958. A Benelux Parliament was created in 1955.

The Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) can be seen as a forerunner of the Benelux. BLEU was created by the treaty signed on 25 July 1921. It established a single market between both countries, while setting the Belgian franc and Luxembourgian franc at a fixed parity.

Several regional organisations have been founded in the Black Sea region since the fall of the Soviet Union, such as:

The Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) aims to ensure peace, stability and prosperity by encouraging friendly and good-neighbourly relations among the 12 state members, located mainly in the Black Sea region. It was created on 25 June 1992 in Istanbul, and entered into force on 1 May 1999. The 11 founding members were Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. Serbia (then Serbia and Montenegro) joined in April 2004.

The GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development is a regional organisation of four post-Soviet states, which aims to promote cooperation and democratic values, ensure stable development, enhance international and regional security, and stepping up European integration. Current members include the four founding ones, namely, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova. Uzbekistan joined in 1999, and left in 2005.

Since the end of the First World War, the following agreements have been signed in the United Kingdom and Ireland region:

The British–Irish Council was created by the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 to "promote the harmonious and mutually beneficial development of the totality of relationships among the peoples of these islands". It was formally established on 2 December 1999. Its membership comprises Ireland, the United Kingdom, three of the countries of the UK (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales), and three British Crown dependencies (Guernsey, the Isle of Man and Jersey). Because England does not have a devolved parliament, it is not represented on the Council as a separate entity.

The Common Travel Area is a passport-free zone established in 1922 that comprises Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey. Under Irish law, all British citizens are exempt from immigration control and immune from deportation.[21] They are entitled to live in Ireland without any restrictions or conditions.[22] Under British law, Irish citizens are entitled to enter and live in the United Kingdom without any restrictions or conditions. They also have the right to vote, work, study and access welfare and healthcare services.[23][24]

In January 2020, the United Kingdom left the EU, reversing most aspects of its 40+ years of participation in EU integration. Ireland continues to remain an enthusiastic member of the Union and participates in some elements of the Schengen Agreement other than the common visa policy [a position likely to remain for as a long as Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom]. The Common Travel Area continues to operate though, as of June 2022, other aspects of the relationship are encountering difficulties.

Flags of Visegrád Group countries

The following cooperation agreements have been signed in Central Europe:

The Visegrád Group is a Central-European alliance for cooperation and European integration, based on an ancient strategic alliance of core Central European countries. The Group originated in a summit meeting of Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland held in the Hungarian castle town of Visegrád on 15 February 1991. The Czech Republic and Slovakia became members after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993.

In 1989, the Central European Initiative, a forum of regional cooperation in Central and Eastern Europe with 18 member states, was formed in Budapest. The CEI headquarters have been in Trieste, Italy, since 1996.

The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade agreement between countries in Central Europe and the Balkans, which works as a preparation for full European Union membership. As of 2013, it has 7 members: North Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the UNMIK (as Kosovo).

It was established in 1992 by Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, but came into force only in 1994. Czechoslovakia had in the meantime split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Slovenia joined in 1996, while Romania did the same in 1997, Bulgaria in 1999, and Croatia in 2003. In 2004, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia left the CEFTA to join the EU. Romania and Bulgaria left it in 2007 for the same reason. Subsequently, North Macedonia joined it in 2006,[25] and Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and UNMIK (on behalf of Kosovo) in 2007. In 2013, Croatia left the CEFTA to join the EU.

Switzerland and Liechtenstein participate in a customs union since 1924, and both employ the Swiss franc as national currency.

The effects of the EU integration process of the countries from the former Eastern bloc are still debated. As a result, the relationship between immigration levels and EU public support remains uncertain. Through the integration, the countries in Eastern Europe have experienced growth of the economy, benefits of the free market agreements and freedom of the labor movement within the EU.[26] However, the results of the empirical socioeconomic analyses suggest that in Spain, France, Ireland and the Netherlands, the immigration from CEE had negative effects on support for European integration in the host societies. The research also implies that the immigration from the CEE seems to undermine the long-term effects of the integration. There are theories for the programs of social development that range in views from: an extended contact with the immigrants from Eastern Europe might help forge a common European identity and it could also lead to a potential national isolation, caused by tightening support mechanisms for the labor immigration. Equal amount of research also implies that the internal migration of the countries within the EU is necessary for the successful development of its economic union.[27]

The EU Strategy for the Danube Region was endorsed by the European Council in 2011 and is the second macro-regional strategy in Europe. The Strategy provides a basis for improved cooperation among 14 countries along the Danube River. It aims to improve the effectiveness of regional integration efforts and leverage the impact of policies at the EU, national and local levels.[28]

The Craiova Group, Craiova Four, or C4 is a cooperation project of four European states – Romania, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia – for the purposes of furthering their European integration as well as economic, transport and energy cooperation with one another.

Whilst most responsibilities ('competences') are retained by the member states, some competences are conferred exclusively on the Union for collective decision, some are shared pending Union action and some receive Union support. These are shown on this table:

The European Union operates a single economic market across the territory of all its members, and uses a single currency between the Eurozone members. Further, the EU has a number of economic relationships with nations that are not formally part of the Union through the European Economic Area and customs union agreements.

EU Free trade agreements

The creation of the EEC eliminated tariffs, quotas and preferences on goods among member states, which are the requisites to define a free trade area (FTA). The United Kingdom remains part of the FTA during the transition period of the Brexit withdrawal agreement.

Numerous countries have signed a European Union Association Agreement (AA) with FTA provisions. These mainly include Mediterranean countries (Algeria in 2005, Egypt in 2004, Israel in 2000, Jordan in 2002, Lebanon in 2006, Morocco in 2000, Palestinian National Authority in 1997, and Tunisia in 1998), albeit some countries from other trade blocs have also signed one (such as Chile in 2003, Mexico in 2000, and South Africa in 2000).

Further, many Balkan states have signed a Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) with FTA provisions, such as Albania (signed 2006), Montenegro (2007), North Macedonia[25] (2004), Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia (both 2008, entry-into-force pending).

In 2008, Poland and Sweden proposed the Eastern Partnership which would include setting a FTA between the EU and Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,[34] Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine.[35]

The European Union Customs Union defines an area where no customs are levied on goods travelling within it. It includes all member states of the European Union. The abolition of internal tariff barriers between EEC member states was achieved in 1968.

Andorra and San Marino belong to the EU customs unions with third states. Turkey is linked by the European Union-Turkey Customs Union.

A prominent goal of the EU since its creation by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 is establishing and maintaining a single market. This seeks to guarantee the four basic freedoms, which are related to ensure the free movement of goods, services, capital and people around the EU's internal market.

The United Kingdom remained part of the single market during the transition period of the Brexit withdrawal agreement. The European Economic Area (EEA) agreement allows Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein to participate in the European Single Market without joining the EU. The four basic freedoms apply. However, some restrictions on fisheries and agriculture take place. Switzerland is linked to the European Union by Swiss-EU bilateral agreements, with a different content from that of the EEA agreement.

Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union

  Members of the Eurozone

  ERM-II members

  ERM-II member with opt-out (Denmark)

  The rest of the EU-members, which are obliged to join

The Eurozone refers to the European Union member states that have adopted the euro currency union as the third stage of the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Further, certain states outside the EU have adopted the euro as their currency, despite not belonging to the EMU. Thus, a total of 25 states, including 19 European Union states and six non-EU members, currently use the euro.

The Eurozone came into existence with the official launch of the euro on 1 January 1999. Physical coins and banknotes were introduced on 1 January 2002.

The original members were Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Greece adopted the euro on 1 January 2001. Slovenia joined on 1 January 2007, Cyprus and Malta were admitted on 1 January 2008, Slovakia joined on 1 January 2009, Estonia on 1 January 2011, Latvia on 1 January 2014 and Lithuania on 1 January 2015.

Outside the EU, agreements have been concluded with Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City for formal adoption, including the right to issue their own coins. Montenegro and Kosovo[lower-alpha 1] unilaterally adopted the euro when it launched.

There has long been speculation about the possibility of the European Union eventually becoming a fiscal union. In the wake of the European debt crisis that began in 2009, calls for closer fiscal ties, possibly leading to some sort of fiscal union have increased; though it is generally regarded as implausible in the short term, some analysts regard fiscal union as a long-term necessity.[36][37] While stressing the need for coordination, governments have rejected talk of fiscal union or harmonisation in this regard.[38]

  ECAC, Eurocontrol, ECAA, EU

  ECAC, Eurocontrol, ECAA

  ECAC, Eurocontrol

  ECAC, ECAA

  ECAC

There are three main aviation related institutions present in Europe:

• European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC)
• Eurocontrol
• European Common Aviation Area (ECAA)

Energy Community in 2014 – Contracting Parties in dark blue, Observers in light blue

The transnational energy related structures present in Europe are:

• Energy Community
• European Atomic Energy Community
• European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity
• European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas
• INOGATE
• Energy Charter Treaty

The transnational standardisation organisations present in Europe are:

The ERASMUS programme (European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students) seeks to encourage and support free movement of the academic community. It was established in 1987.

A total of 33 states (including all European Union states, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey) are involved.

European Higher Education Area

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) aims to integrate education systems in Europe. Thus, degrees and study periods are recognised mutually. This is done by following the Bologna process, and under the Lisbon Recognition Convention of the Council of Europe.

The Bologna declaration was signed in 1999 by 29 countries, all EU members or candidates at the moment (except Cyprus which joined later) and three out of four EFTA countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom. Croatia, Cyprus, Liechtenstein, and Turkey joined in 2001. In 2003, Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Holy See (a Council of Europe permanent observer), North Macedonia,[25] Russia, and Serbia signed the convention. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine followed in 2005. Montenegro joined in 2007. Finally, Kazakhstan (not a member of the Council of Europe) joined in 2010. This makes a total of 47 member states. Monaco and San Marino are the only members of the Council of Europe which have not adopted the convention. The other European nation that is eligible to join, but has not, is Belarus.

There are a number of multinational research institutions based in Europe.

• In the EIROforum collaboration:
  • European Space Agency
  • European Molecular Biology Laboratory
  • European Fusion Development Agreement
  • European Southern Observatory
  • Particle physics:
    • CERN
    • European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
    • Institut Laue–Langevin
    • European XFEL
• Meteorology:
  • EUMETSAT
  • European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
  • EUMETNET

EHIC participating nations (EU members in blue, non-members in green)

epSOS participating nations

The European Health Insurance Card (or EHIC) is issued free of charge and allows anyone who is insured by or covered by a statutory social security scheme of the EEA countries and Switzerland to receive medical treatment in another member state for free or at a reduced cost, if that treatment becomes necessary during their visit (for example, due to illness or an accident), or if they have a chronic pre-existing condition which requires care such as kidney dialysis.

The epSOS project, also known as Smart Open Services for European Patients, aims to promote free movement of patients.[39] It will allow health professionals to electronically access the data from patients from another country, to electronically process prescriptions in all involved countries, or to provide treatment in another EU state to a patient on a waiting list.

The project has been launched by the EU and 47 member institutions from 23 EU member states and 3 non-EU members. They include national health ministries, national competence centres, social insurance institutions and scientific institutions as well as technical and administrative management entities.

The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union is a document enshrining certain fundamental rights. The wording of the document has been agreed at ministerial level and has been incorporated into the Treaty of Lisbon. Poland has negotiated an opt out from this Charter, as had the United Kingdom before the latter's withdrawal from the European Union.

The European integration process has extended the right of foreigners to vote. Thus, European Union citizens were given voting rights in local elections by the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. Several member states (Belgium, Luxembourg, Lithuania, and Slovenia) have extended since then the right to vote to all foreign residents. This was already the case in Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands and Sweden. Further, voting and eligibility rights are granted among citizens of the Nordic Passport Union, and between numerous countries through bilateral treaties (i.e. between Norway and Spain, or between Portugal and Brazil, Cape Verde, Iceland, Norway, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile and Argentina), or without them (i.e. Ireland and the United Kingdom). Finally, within the EEA, Iceland and Norway also grant the right to vote to all foreign residents.

Schengen Agreement

  Full Schengen EU members

  Non-EU Schengen members

  Future members

  Cooperating countries

The main purpose of the establishment of the Schengen Agreement is the abolition of physical borders among European countries. A total of 30 states, including 26 European Union states (all except Ireland, which is part of the Common travel area with the United Kingdom) and four non-EU members (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland), are subject to the Schengen rules. Its provisions have already been implemented by 26 states, leaving just Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, and Romania to do so among signatory states.

Further, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City are de facto members.

European Union has visa-free regime agreements with some European countries outside EU and discussing such agreements with others; Armenia,[40] Russia,[41][42] Ukraine,[43] and Moldova.[44] Matters concerning Turkey have also been debated.[45][46] Ireland maintains an independent visa policy in the EU.

NATO members in blue, CSTO members in orange

There are a number of multi-national military and peacekeeping forces which are ultimately under the command of the EU, and therefore can be seen as the core for a future European Union army.[47] These corps include forces from 26 EU states – all except Denmark, which had an opt-out clause in its accession treaty and was not obliged to participate in the common defence policy, but in 2022 decided to abandon its stance; and Malta, which currently does not participate in any battlegroup –, Norway and Turkey. Further, the Western European Union (WEU) capabilities and functions have been transferred to the European Union, under its developing Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).[48]

The EU also has close ties with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), according to the Berlin Plus agreement. This is a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002. With this agreement the EU is given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO does not want to act itself – the so-called "right of first refusal".[49]

The participation in European defence organisations

In fact, many EU member states are among the 28 NATO members. The Treaty of Brussels is considered the precursor to NATO. The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. in 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states, as well as the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952, and West Germany did the same in 1955. Spain entered in 1982. In 1999, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland became NATO members. Finally, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovenia, and Slovakia joined in 2004. In 2009, Croatia and Albania joined. In 2008, Ukraine and Georgia were told that they will also eventually become members. Thus, 21 out of 28 NATO states are among the 27 EU members, another two are members of the EEA, and one more is an EU candidate and also a member of the European Union Customs Union.

  ESA member countries

  ECS states

  signed Cooperation Agreement (CA)

  ESA and EU member countries

  ESA-only members

  EU-only members

On 22 May 2007, the member states of the European Union have agreed to create a common political framework for space activities in Europe by unifying the approach of the European Space Agency (ESA) with those of the individual European Union member states.[50]

However, ESA is an intergovernmental organisation with no formal organic link to the EU; indeed the two institutions have different member states and are governed by different rules and procedures. ESA was created in 1975 by the merger of the two pre-existing European organisations engaged in space activities, ELDO and ESRO. The 10 founding members were Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Ireland joined on 31 December 1975. In 1987, Austria and Norway became member states. Finland joined in 1995, Portugal in 2000, Greece and Luxembourg in 2005, the Czech Republic in 2008, and Romania in 2011. Currently, it has 20 member states: all the EU member states before 2004, plus Czech Republic, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Switzerland. In addition, Canada has had the special status of a Cooperating State under a series of cooperation agreements dating since 1979.[51][52]

In 2007 the political perspective of the European Union was to make ESA an agency of the EU by 2014.[53] ESA is likely to expand in the coming years with the countries which joined the EU in both 2004 and 2007. Currently, almost all EU member states are in different stages of affiliation with ESA. Poland[54] has joined on 19 November 2012. Hungary[55] and Estonia[56] have signed ESA Convention. Latvia and Slovenia have started to implement a Plan for European Cooperating State (PECS) Charter. Slovakia, Lithuania and Bulgaria have signed a European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement. Cyprus,[57] Malta and Croatia have signed Cooperation Agreements with ESA.

  EU, Schengen, EMU, AFSJ (All agreements): 17 c.

  EU, Schengen, AFSJ: 3 c.

  EU, EMU, AFSJ: 1 c.

  EU, Schengen: 2 c.

  EU, EMU: 1 c.

  EU, AFSJ: 3 c.

  EEA, Schengen: 3 c.

  Schengen, Bilateral treaties: 1 c.

  Candidates, some agreements: 7 c.

  Microstates, some agreements: 4 c.

  Association Agreement: 3 c.

  some agreements: 0 c.

A small group of EU member states have joined all European treaties, instead of opting out on some. They drive the development of a federal model for the European integration. This is linked to the concept of Multi-speed Europe where some countries would create a core union; and goes back to the Inner Six references to the founding member states of the European Communities.

At present, the formation of a formal Core Europe Federation ("a federation within the confederation") has been held off at every occasion where such a federation treaty had been discussed. Instead, supranational institutions are created that govern more areas in "Inner Europe" than existing European integration provides for.

Among the 27 EU state members, seventeen states have signed all integration agreements: Austria, Belgium, Finland, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. The agreements considered include the fifth stage of economic integration or EMU, the Schengen agreement, and the Area of freedom, security and justice (AFSJ).

Thus, among the 27 EU countries, 19 have joined the Eurozone, and 22 have joined Schengen, and 24 have no opt-outs under AFSJ.

Further, some countries which do not belong to the EU have joined several of these initiatives, albeit sometimes at a lower stage such as the Customs Union, the Common Market (EEA), or even unilaterally adopting the euro, and by taking part in Schengen, either as a signatory state, or de facto.

Thus, six non-EU countries have adopted the euro (four through an agreement with the EU and two unilaterally), and four non-EU states have joined the Schengen agreement officially.

The following table shows the status of each state membership to the different agreements promoted by the EU. It lists 47 countries, including the 27 EU member states, 7 candidate states, 3 members of the EEA and Switzerland, 3 countries with soft ties to the EU (such as those with SAA or participation agreements), 4 microstates, and the United Kingdom and Armenia as special cases.

Hence, this table summarises some components of EU laws applied in most European states. Some territories of EU member states also have a special status in regard to EU laws applied. Some territories of EFTA member states also have a special status in regard to EU laws applied as is the case with some European microstates. For member states that do not have special-status territories the EU law applies fully with the exception of the opt-outs in the European Union and states under a safeguard clause or alternatively some states participate in enhanced co-operation between a subset of the EU members. Additionally, there are various examples of non-participation by some EU members and non-EU states participation in particular Agencies of the European Union, the programmes for European Higher Education Area, European Research Area and Erasmus Mundus.

European Union Agreements

State	Map	EU	EEA	Customs Union	Schengen	EMU (Euro)	AFSJ
Austria		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Belgium		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Estonia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Finland		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
France		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Germany		Yes[58]	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Greece		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Italy		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Latvia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lithuania		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Luxembourg		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Malta		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Netherlands		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Portugal		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Slovakia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Slovenia		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Spain		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Czech Republic		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Hungary		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Sweden		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes
Cyprus		Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Yes	Yes
Denmark		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Opt-out, ERM II	Opt-out
Poland		Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	CFR partial opt-out
Ireland		Yes	Yes	Yes	No, Visa Free	Yes	Opt-out (Opt-in)
Bulgaria		Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	ERM II	Yes
Croatia		Yes	Accession agreement initialled	Yes	Obliged to join	ERM II	Yes
Romania		Yes	Yes	Yes	Obliged to join	Obliged to join	Yes
Liechtenstein		No	Yes	No (Swiss-Liecht CU)	Yes	No	No
Norway		Applications withdrawn[59]	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Iceland		Applications withdrawn[60]	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Switzerland		Application withdrawn[61]	Bilateral treaties[62]	No (Swiss-Liecht CU)	Yes	No	No
Albania		Candidate	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Moldova		Candidate	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Montenegro		Candidate	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	Unilaterally adopted	No
North Macedonia[25]		Candidate	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Serbia		Candidate	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Turkey		Candidate	No	Customs Union[Note 1]	No	No	No
Ukraine		Candidate	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Andorra		No	No	Customs Union[Note 1]	No, Visa Free	Yes[Note 2]	No
Monaco		No	No	de facto, with France	de facto, with France	Yes[Note 2]	No
San Marino		No	No	Customs Union[Note 1]	Open border	Yes[Note 2]	No
Vatican City		No	No	No	Open border	Yes[Note 2]	No
Bosnia and Herzegovina		SAA signed (Application submitted 15 February 2016)	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Georgia		AA signed (Application submitted 3 march 2022)	No, EC, ECAA	No	No, Visa Free	No	No
Republic of Kosovo		SAA signed	No, EC, ECAA	No	No	Unilaterally adopted	No
Armenia		No ( CEPA signed )	No, EC, ECAA	No	No	No	No
United Kingdom		No (withdrew)	No (withdrew)	No	No, Visa Free	No	No

Notes:

In 2008, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev announced a new concept for Russian foreign politics and called for the creation of a common space in Euro-Atlantic and Eurasia area "from Vancouver to Vladivostok".[72] On 5 June 2009 in Berlin he proposed a new all-European pact for security that would include all European, CIS countries and the United States.[73][74] On 29 November 2009 a draft version of the European Security Treaty appeared.[75][76][77] French president Sarkozy spoke positively about Medvedev's ideas and called for closer security and economic relation between Europe and Russia.[78][79][80][81][82] Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych also called for stronger integration of Europe, Ukraine and Russia. On the other hand, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and NATO chief Anders Fogh Rasmussen said such new agreement is unnecessary.[83][84]

Area from Lisbon to Vladivostok with all European and CIS countries

Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in a German newspaper in 2010 called for common economic space, free-trade area or more advanced economic integration, stretching from Lisbon to Vladivostok.[85][86][87][88][89] He also said it is quite possible Russia could join the eurozone one day.[90] French president Nicolas Sarkozy in 2010 said he believes in 10 or 15 years there will be common economic space between EU and Russia with visa-free regime and general concept of security.[91]

  Member states of the European Union

  Current enlargement agenda

  Special member state territories outside the EU

  EEZ of special member state territories outside the EU

Russian legal scholar Oleg Kutafin and economist Alexander Zakharov produced a Concept of a Single Legal Space for the CIS and Europe in 2002. This idea was fully incorporated in the resolution of the 2003 Moscow Legal Forum. The Forum gathered representatives of more than 20 countries including 10 CIS countries. In 2007 both the International Union of Jurists of the CIS and the International Union (Commonwealth) of Advocates passed resolutions that strongly support the Concept of a Single Legal Space for Europe and post-Soviet Countries.

The concept said: "Obviously, to improve its legislation Russia and other countries of CIS should be oriented toward the continental legal family of European law. The civil law system is much closer to the Russian and other CIS countries will be instrumental in harmonising legislation of CIS countries and the European Community but all values of common law should be also investigated on the subject of possible implementation in some laws and norms. It is suggested that the introduction of the concept of a Single legal space and a single Rule of Law space for Europe and CIS be implemented in four steps:

1. Development plans at the national level regarding adoption of selected EC legal standards in the legislation of CIS countries;
2. Promotion of measures for harmonisation of law with the goal of developing a single legal space for Europe and CIS countries in the area of commercial and corporate law;
3. Making the harmonisation of judicial practice of CIS countries compatible with Rule of Law principles and coordination of the basic requirements of the Rule of Law in CIS countries with the EU legal standards.
4. Development of ideas the Roerich Pact (International Treaty on the Protection of Artistic and Scientific Institution and Historic Monuments initiated by Russian thinker Nicholas Roerich and signed in 1935 by 40 % of sovereign states in Washington D.C.) into the law of CIS countries and European law.

[92]

EU regional initiatives; current enlargement agenda (SAP and candidate countries), ENP; Eastern Partnership, Euromediterranean Partnership and EU-Russia Common Spaces

The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership or Barcelona Process was organised by the European Union to strengthen its relations with the countries in the Mashriq and Maghreb regions. It started in 1995 with the Barcelona Euro-Mediterranean Conference, and it has been developed in successive annual meetings.

The European Union enlargement of 2004 brought two more Mediterranean countries (Cyprus and Malta) into the Union, while adding a total of 10 to the number of Member States. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership today comprises 43 members: 27 European Union member states, and 15 partner countries (Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia, as well as the Palestinian Territories). Libya has had observer status since 1999.

The Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Area (EU-MEFTA) is based on the Barcelona Process and European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). It will cover the EU, the EFTA, the EU customs unions with third states (Andorra, San Marino, and Turkey), the EU candidate states, and the partners of the Barcelona Process.

The Union for the Mediterranean is a community of countries, mostly bordering the Mediterranean Sea, established in July 2008.[93]

Morocco already has a number of close ties with the EU, including an Association Agreement with FTA provisions, air transport integration, or the participation in military operations such as ALTHEA in Bosnia.

Further, it will be the first partner to go beyond association by enhancing political and economic ties, entering the Single Market, and participating in some EU agencies.[94][95][96][97]

European Union and Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose organisation in which most former Soviet republics participate. A visa-free regime operates among members and a free-trade area is planned. Ukraine is not an official member, but has participated in the organisation. Some members are more integrated than others, for example Russia and Belarus form a Union State. In 2010, Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan formed a customs union and a single market (Common Economic Space) commenced on 1 January 2012. The Presidents of Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan established the Eurasian Union with a Eurasian Commission in 2015, subsequently joined by Armenia and Kyrgyzstan. A common currency is also planned, potentially to be named "evraz". Some other countries in the region, such as Moldova are potential members of these organisations.

The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, Artsakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria are all members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration.

ASEM

ACP countries

EuroLat

Proposed TAFTA

The European Union cooperates with some other countries and regions via loose organisations and regular meetings. The ASEM forum, consisting of the EU and some Asian countries, has been held every two years since 1996. The EU and African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States form the ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly, promoting ACP–EU development cooperation, democracy and human rights. The EU and Latin American countries form the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly. TAFTA is a proposed free-trade area between EU and United States.

• ASEM – Asia–Europe Meeting
• ACP – African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (Economic Partnership Agreements)
• EuroLat – Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly
• TAFTA – Transatlantic Free Trade Area

European countries like the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal have made organisations with other countries in the world with which they have strong cultural and historical links.

Commonwealth of Nations

Francophonie

Ibero-American States

English is considered to be the global lingua franca. European languages like English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and German are official, co-official or widely in use in many countries with a colonial past or with a European diaspora.

Anglophone

Francophone

Hispanophone and Lusophone

Italophone

Germanophone