Gumbo

Okra pods

Sassafras leaves, source of filé powder

Gumbo broth or gravy derives from three primary thickeners: okra, filé powder, and roux.[5] Traditionally, okra and filé powder are not used in the same dish, although this rule is sometimes broken.[7] Roux can be used alone or in conjunction with either of the other thickeners.[8][9] Okra is more often used as a thickener in seafood gumbos than those with meat.[5] This mucilaginous vegetable is usually cooked first, and other ingredients added once the desired consistency is reached.[10] According to The Oxford Companion to Food, okra-based gumbos are becoming less popular, as the okra texture has become less palatable to changing tastes.[11]

Ground sassafras leaf, known as filé, is generally not added to the gravy until after the vegetables and meats or seafood have finished cooking and have been removed from the heat source. If added during the boiling process, filé makes the gumbo too ropey;[10] when added at the end, the gumbo gains a slightly stringy texture.[11]

Roux has become the most popular thickener,[11] made from cooking together a roughly equal proportion of flour and fat (traditionally hog lard, although increasingly made with butter since the mid-20th century[12]). The length of cooking time determines the final flavor and texture, since the longer the roux is cooked before being added to the gumbo, the darker it becomes and the less thickening power it retains. A very dark roux provides a much thinner sauce with a more intense flavor than a light roux.[12]

Cajun seafood gumbo

Creole seafood gumbo

Gumbo is typically divided into two varieties. Combinations traditionally common in New Orleans and southeastern Louisiana are known as "Creole" after the Louisiana Creole people, descendants of the area's French, Spanish, and African immigrants. "Cajun" combinations were common in southwestern Louisiana, which was populated primarily by Cajuns, descendants of the French-speaking settlers expelled from Acadia (located within the modern-day Canadian provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) in the mid-18th century.[7][13]

Gumbo is usually identified by its dark roux,[8] cooked until it is a color "a few shades from burning".[12] The roux is used with okra or filé powder.[8] Seafood is popular in gumbo the closer to the water the people are, but the southwestern areas of Louisiana often use fowl, such as chicken or duck, and sausage.[8][9] The fowl is generally not deboned, and onions, celery, and bell pepper are not strained out of the dish.[8] Cajun gumbo is usually topped with parsley and green onions.[8]

Creole gumbo most often consists of seafood, tomatoes, and a thickener.[7] Before the latter half of the 20th century, celery was rarely used in Creole gumbo.[12]

Gumbo z'herbes, served with filé powder and hot sauce

When Catholics were expected to abstain from eating meat during Lent, a meatless variety of gumbo, known as gumbo z'herbes (from gumbo aux herbes, or "gumbo of greens"), was often served.[14] This variety combined varied greens – typically including turnips, mustard greens, and spinach.[10] The greens were cooked to mush and strained through a sieve to produce a thick green liquid. Preparation for this variety of gumbo was time-consuming, and as Lenten restrictions have relaxed, the dish has become less popular.[10] It is very rarely served in restaurants.[15] In modern times, ham or crabmeat is occasionally added to this type of gumbo.[6]

Gumbo z'herbes may have originated with the French/Spanish/West Africans.[16] It has similarities to the French dish potage aux herbes ("soup with greens"), as well as to the Afro-Caribbean callaloo.[16] The meatless dish also bears striking resemblance to a dish often eaten in Germany on Maundy Thursday. German Catholics, obeying the Lenten rules, often served a stew made of seven different greens on this date.[15]

Gumbo is often used as a metaphor for the mix of cultures that exist in southern Louisiana.[1] The dish combines the culinary practices of Africans, Native Americans, French, and Spanish. In the 18th and 19th centuries, people from these cultures lived within a fairly small area with minimal mobility. In this environment, cultures could influence each other and meld to create new traditions and cuisine.[17]

The establishment of New Orleans in 1718 marked the beginning of the French colony of Louisiana.[18] French settlers allied with various native tribes including the Choctaw, Alabama, and Cherokee,[19][20] from whom they learned new methods of cooking and ways to identify edible indigenous plants.[21]

Slave ships began arriving in Louisiana in 1719. The first ships carried rice and men who were experienced in its cultivation.[22] The grain adapted well to its new environment, and within a few years, rice was commonly grown along the Mississippi River.[23]

In 1721, 125 Germans settled 40 miles (64 km) from New Orleans, and introduced the art of making sausage.[24] By 1746, the white population of Louisiana was estimated to be 3,200, with an estimated 4,730 black people. Enslaved Africans outnumbered whites in most areas of Louisiana for at least the next 40 years.[25][26]

The colony was transferred from French to Spanish control in 1762.[23] The Spanish government actively recruited settlers for Spanish Louisiana.[27] About 2,000 people from the Canary Islands moved to the area south of New Orleans.[28][29] These settlers were primarily fishermen who soon began supplying large amounts of shrimp, crab, and oysters to the food markets in New Orleans. The Canary Islanders also brought "a love for well-seasoned food",[30] including use of ground cayenne pepper, a spicy hot red chili pepper.[29] Spanish authorities also granted permission for many French-speaking Acadian exiles to relocate from northeastern North America to Louisiana. From 1755 through 1795, almost 3,000 of these settlers, soon known as Cajuns, moved to the areas south and west of New Orleans.[30] Louisiana was secretly returned to France in 1800, then purchased by the United States in 1803. The southernmost part of territorial Louisiana, including New Orleans, became the state of Louisiana in 1812.

By 1800, the slave trade had introduced new foods to Louisiana, including the African vegetable okra,[31] and hot pepper plants which likely came from Haiti.[32] Onions and bell peppers were long part of cooking in both the Spanish and African traditions.[20] Tomatoes were introduced to the region shortly thereafter.[33]

Scholars agree that gumbo originated in Louisiana in the early 18th century,[1] but its uncertain etymology makes it difficult to pinpoint the origins of the food.[2] Although no conclusive evidence exists, cultural markers indicate several plausible scenarios.[20]

As aforementioned, while its exact origins are unknown, gumbo is often believed to be a dish of mixed origins of French, Spanish, African, Native American, Caribbean and German influence. Enslaved African-Americans often exchanged or combined ingredients in order to make the dish, allowing it to serve as a means of community and identity.[34]

West Africans used the vegetable okra as a base for many dishes, including soups. In Louisiana, gumbo includes ingredients introduced by several cultural groups.[20] Surviving records indicate that by 1764 Africans in New Orleans mixed cooked okra with rice to make a meal.[23]

Though highly unlikely, gumbo could be a derivation of traditional French soups, particularly the fish stew bouillabaisse.[4][35] During the cold winters, Acadians generally cooked soups,[17] using whatever ingredients were readily available.[32] When the Acadians moved to Louisiana in the mid-18th century, they were unable to find many of their traditional ingredients, including turnips and cabbage.[17] In this scenario, Acadian colonists substituted local ingredients for those commonly included in the original stew. Instead of the fish, settlers used shellfish. The dish was later modified to include ingredients common in other cultures.[4]

Some culinary experts in the early 20th century, including Celestine Eustis, maintained that gumbo was an early special occasion dish for native tribes.[35] This is further implied by a late 18th-century Cajun practice. At that time, rice was a luxury for many Cajuns. They served gumbo over corn grits, a pairing common in the stews of native tribes. The use of corn and filé powder may imply that the dish was derived from native cuisine.[23]

These theories are intermixed in the local legend of the Frying Pan Revolt, or Petticoat Insurrection. According to legend, in 1722, female French colonists gathered in New Orleans at the home of Governor Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, to protest the lack of familiar ingredients. Bienville's housekeeper, Madame Langlois, taught the women how to improve the basic gumbo. Langlois used okra, an ingredient which the women had previously been introduced to by the African people they were enslaving. Spanish and Choctaw introduced ingredients common in Choctaw cuisine – shrimp, crawfish, and filé powder.[35]

The first written references to gumbo appear in the early 19th century. In 1802, John Sibley described "the dish they call gumbo which is made principally of the ochre into a thick kind of soop [sic] & eat with rice, it is the food of every body for dinner and supper."[36] The following year, French governor Pierre Clement de Laussat hosted a soirée in which 24 different gumbos were prepared. According to author Cynthia Lejeune Nobles, these two events "give clues to gumbo's Spanish colonial popularity and illustrate that the dish could be both humble and refined".[29]

An 1824 cookbook, Mary Randolph's The Virginia House-Wife, was the first to include a recipe for gumbo. Called "Gumbo – A West India Dish", the simple recipe described how to boil okra and bore little resemblance to the stew commonly known as gumbo. The same book contained a recipe for "Ochra Soup" made with okra, onions, fowl, bacon, tomatoes, and lima beans thickened with flour. Although this recipe bore similarities to gumbo, it more closely resembled the Caribbean dish callaloo.[37]

A more familiar version of the dish was described in an 1879 cookbook by Marion Cabell Tyree. Her Housekeeping in Old Virginia described "Gumbo Filit A La Creole", a filé-based gumbo with chicken and oysters and spiced with allspice, cloves, red and black pepper, parsley, and thyme.[37] The 1881 cookbook What Mrs. Fisher Knows About Old Southern Cooking, dictated by former slave Abby Fisher, contained three gumbo recipes. "Oyster Gumbo Soup" used a filé base, while "Ochra Gumbo" and "Chicken Gumbo" used okra as a base.[37] Four years later, the cookbook La Cuisine Creole documented eight varieties of gumbo. None used sausage, but almost all of them contained ham.[30]

Until the 1970s, gumbo was primarily popular on the Gulf Coast of the United States. It gained a broader profile after the death of United States Senator Allen Ellender. A native of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, Ellender had often cooked gumbo for his colleagues, including five American presidents. After Ellender died in 1972, the Senate directed that their cafeteria add Louisiana Creole Gumbo, made with seafood, to its menu in his honor. The dish became more widely popular in the 1980s, when chef Paul Prudhomme's popularity spurred interest in Creole and Cajun cooking.[38]