Japanese era name

964–968	Kōhō
968–970	Anna
970–973	Tenroku
973–976	Ten'en
976–978	Jōgen
978–983	Tengen
983–985	Eikan
985–987	Kanna
987–988	Eien
988–990	Eiso
990–995	Shōryaku
995–999	Chōtoku
999–1004	Chōhō
1004–1012	Kankō
1012–1017	Chōwa
1017–1021	Kannin
1021–1024	Jian
1024–1028	Manju
1028–1037	Chōgen
1037–1040	Chōryaku

806–810	Daidō
810–824	Kōnin
824–834	Tenchō
834–848	Jōwa
848–851	Kashō
851–854	Ninju
854–857	Saikō
857–859	Ten'an
859–877	Jōgan
877–885	Gangyō
885–889	Ninna
889–898	Kanpyō
898–901	Shōtai
901–923	Engi
923–931	Enchō
931–938	Jōhei
938–947	Tengyō
947–957	Tenryaku
957–961	Tentoku
961–964	Ōwa

645–650	Taika
650–654	Hakuchi
686–686	Shuchō
701–704	Taihō
704–708	Keiun
708–715	Wadō
Nara
715–717	Reiki
717–724	Yōrō
724–729	Jinki
729–749	Tenpyō
749	Tenpyō-kanpō
749–757	Tenpyō-shōhō
757–765	Tenpyō-hōji
765–767	Tenpyō-jingo
767–770	Jingo-keiun
770–781	Hōki
781–782	Ten'ō
782–806	Enryaku

The Japanese era name (Japanese: 年号, Hepburn: nengō, "year name"), also known as gengō (元号), is the first of the two elements that identify years in the Japanese era calendar scheme. The second element is a number which indicates the year number within the era (with the first year being "gan (元)"), followed by the literal "nen (年)" meaning "year".

Era names originated in 140 BCE in China, during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han.[1][2] As elsewhere in East Asia, the use of era names was originally derived from Chinese imperial practice,[2][3][4] although the Japanese system is independent of the Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese era-naming systems. Unlike these other similar systems, Japanese era names are still in use. Government offices usually require era names and years for official papers.

The five era names used since the end of the Edo period in 1868 can be abbreviated by taking the first letter of their romanized names. For example, S55 means Shōwa 55 (i.e. 1980), and H22 stands for Heisei 22 (2010). At 62 years and 2 weeks, Shōwa is the longest era to date.

The current era is Reiwa (令和),[5] which began on 1 May 2019, following the 31st (and final) year of the Heisei era (平成31年). While the Heisei era (平成) started on the day after the death of the Emperor Hirohito (8 January 1989), the Reiwa era began the day after the planned and voluntary abdication[6] of the 125th Emperor Akihito. Emperor Akihito received special one-time permission to abdicate,[7] rather than serving in his role until his death, as is the rule.[8] His elder son, Naruhito, ascended to the throne as the 126th Emperor of Japan on 1 May 2019.[9]

Overview

Keizō Obuchi, Chief Cabinet Secretary, announces the name of the new era "Heisei" (平成), on 7 January 1989.

Yoshihide Suga, Chief Cabinet Secretary, announces the name of the new era "Reiwa" (令和) at the Prime Minister's Official Residence, on 1 April 2019.

1729 Japanese calendar, which used the Jōkyō calendar procedure, published by Ise Grand Shrine.

The system on which the Japanese era names are based originated in China in 140 BC, and was adopted by Japan in 645 AD, during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku.

The first era name to be assigned was "Taika" (大化), celebrating the political and organizational changes which were to flow from the great Taika reform (大化の改新) of 645. Although the regular practice of proclaiming successive era names was interrupted in the late seventh century, it was permanently re-adopted in 701 during the reign of Emperor Monmu (697–707). Since then, era names have been used continuously up through the present day.[10]

Historical nengō

Prior to the Meiji period, era names were decided by court officials and were subjected to frequent change. A new era name was usually proclaimed within a year or two after the ascension of a new emperor. A new era name was also often designated on the first, fifth and 58th years of the sexagenary cycle, because they were inauspicious years in Onmyōdō. These three years are respectively known as kakurei, kakuun, and kakumei, and collectively known as sankaku. Era names were also changed due to other felicitous events or natural disasters.

In historical practice, the first day of a nengō (元年, gannen) starts whenever the emperor chooses; and the first year continues until the next lunar new year, which is understood to be the start of the nengō's second year.[11]

Era names indicate the various reasons for their adoption. For instance, the nengō Wadō (和銅), during the Nara period, was declared due to the discovery of copper deposits in Chichibu. Most nengō are composed of two kanji, except for a short time during the Nara period when four-kanji names were sometimes adopted to follow the Chinese trend. Tenpyō Kanpō (天平感宝), Tenpyō Shōhō (天平勝宝), Tenpyō Hōji (天平宝字) and Tenpyō Jingo (天平神護) are some famous nengō names that use four characters. Since the Heian period, Confucian thoughts and ideas have been reflected in era names, such as Daidō (大同), Kōnin (弘仁) and Tenchō (天長). Although there currently exist a total of 248 Japanese era names, only 73 kanji have been used in composing them. Out of these 73 kanji, 31 of them have been used only once, while the rest have been used repeatedly in different combinations.

The vast majority of Japanese Era Names were used for less than 10 years, with two being used for less than a year. Only 28 have been used for more than 10 years and less than 30 years. Only Heisei, Oei, Meiji, and Showa have been used for more than 30 years.

Nengō in modern Japan

Mutsuhito assumed the throne in 1867, during the third year of the Keiō (慶応) era. On 23 October 1868, the era name was changed to "Meiji" (明治), and a "one reign, one era name" (一世一元, issei-ichigen) system was adopted, wherein era names would change only upon immediate imperial succession. This system is similar to the now-defunct Chinese system used since the days of the Ming dynasty. The Japanese nengō system differs from Chinese practice, in that in the Chinese system the era name was not updated until the year following the emperor's death.

In modern practice, the first year of a nengō (元年, gannen) starts immediately upon the emperor's accession and ends on 31 December. Subsequent years follow the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Meiji era lasted until 30 July 1912, when the Emperor died and the Taishō (大正) era was proclaimed. 1912 is therefore known as both "Meiji 45" and "Taishō 1" (大正元年, Taishō gannen), although Meiji technically ended on 30 July with Mutsuhito's death.

This practice, implemented successfully since the days of Meiji but never formalized, became law in 1979 with the passage of the Era Name Law (元号法, gengō-hō). Thus, since 1868, there have only been five era names assigned: Meiji, Taishō, Shōwa, Heisei, and Reiwa, each corresponding with the rule of only one emperor. Upon death, the emperor is thereafter referred to by the era of his reign. For example, Mutsuhito is posthumously known as "Emperor Meiji" (明治天皇, Meiji Tennō).

It is protocol in Japan that the reigning emperor be referred to as Tennō Heika (天皇陛下, "His Majesty the Emperor") or Kinjō Tennō (今上天皇, "current emperor"). To call the current emperor by the current era name, i.e. "Reiwa", even in English, is a faux pas, as this is – and will be – his posthumous name. Use of the emperor's given name (i.e., "Naruhito") is rare, and is considered vulgar behaviour in Japanese.

The Emperor Akihito abdicated on 30 April 2019, necessitating a change in nengō. The new name, made public on the morning of 1 May of the same year, is Reiwa (令和).[5]

Periods without era names

The era name system that was introduced by Emperor Kōtoku was abandoned after his death; no era names were designated between 654 and 686. The system was briefly reinstated by Emperor Tenmu in 686, but was again abandoned upon his death about two months later. In 701, Emperor Monmu once again reinstated the era name system, and it has continued uninterrupted through today.

Although use of the Gregorian calendar for historical dates became increasingly common in Japan, the traditional Japanese system demands that dates be written in reference to era names. The apparent problem introduced by the lack of era names was resolved by identifying the years of an imperial reign as a period.[12]

Although in modern Japan posthumous imperial names correspond with the eras of their reign, this is a relatively recent concept, introduced in practice during the Meiji period and instituted by law in 1979. Therefore, the posthumous names of the emperors and empresses who reigned prior to 1868 may not be taken as era names by themselves. For example, the year 572—the year in which Emperor Bidatsu assumed the Chrysanthemum Throne – is properly written as "敏達天皇元年" (Bidatsu-Tennō Gannen, "the first year of Emperor Bidatsu"), and not "敏達元年" (Bidatsu Gannen, "the first year of Bidatsu"), although it may be abbreviated as such.[13] By incorporating both proper era names and posthumous imperial names in this manner, it is possible to extend the nengō system to cover all dates from 660 BCE through today.[14]

Unofficial era name system

In addition to the official era name system, in which the era names are selected by the imperial court, one also observes—primarily in the ancient documents and epigraphs of shrines and temples—unofficial era names called shinengō (私年号, "personal era name"), also known as ginengō (偽年号) or inengō (異年号). Currently, there are over 40 confirmed shinengō, most of them dating from the middle ages. Shinengō used prior to the reestablishment of the era name system in 701 are usually called itsunengō (逸年号).[lower-alpha 1]

Because official records of shinengō are lacking, the range of dates to which they apply is often unclear. For example, the well-known itsunengō Hakuhō (白鳳) is normally said to refer to 650–654 CE; a poetic synonym for the Hakuchi era. However, alternate interpretations exist. For example, in the Nichūreki, Hakuhō refers to 661–683 CE, and in some medieval temple documents, Hakuhō refers to 672–685 CE. Thus, shinengō may be used as an alternative way of dating periods for which there is no official era name.

Other well-known itsunengō and shinengō include Hōkō (法興) (591–621+ CE), Suzaku (朱雀) (686), Entoku (延徳) (1460), Miroku (弥勒) (1506–1507 or 1507–1509) and Meiroku (命禄) (1540–1543).

The most recent shinengō is Seiro (征露) (1904–1905), named for the Russo-Japanese War.

Kyūshū nengō

Edo period scholar Tsurumine Shigenobu proposed that Kyūshū nengō (九州年号), said to have been used in ancient Kumaso, should also be considered a form of shinengō. This claim is not generally recognized by the academic community. Lists of the proposed Kyūshū nengō can be seen in the Japanese language entries 鶴峯戊申 and 九州王朝説.

Software support

Character sets

Certain era names have specific characters assigned to them, for instance ㋿ for the Reiwa period, which can also be written as 令和. These are included in Unicode: Code points U+32FF (㋿), U+337B (㍻), U+337C (㍼), U+337D (㍽) and U+337E (㍾) are used for the Reiwa, Heisei, Shōwa, Taishō and Meiji eras, respectively.

Calendar libraries

Certain calendar libraries support the conversion from and to the era system, as well as rendering of dates using it.

Since the release of Java 8, the Japanese calendar is supported in the new Date and time API for the year Meiji 6 (1873) onwards.[15]

Support for the new era in Japanese imperial transition of 2019

Computers and software manufacturers needed to test their systems in preparation for the new era which began on 1 May 2019. Windows provided a test mechanism to simulate a new era ahead of time.[16] Java Development Kit 11 supported this era using the placeholders "元号" for Japanese, "NewEra" for other languages.[17] The final name was added in JDK 12.0.1, after it was announced by the Japanese government.[18]

Unicode code point U+32FF (㋿) was reserved for representing the new era name, Reiwa.[19][20][21][22][23][24]

The list of Japanese era names is the result of a periodization system which was established by Emperor Kōtoku in 645. The system of Japanese era names (年号, nengō, "year name") was irregular until the beginning of the 8th century.[25] After 701, sequential era names developed without interruption across a span of centuries.[10] As of 1 April 2019, there have been 239 era names.

List of Japanese era names

To convert a Japanese year to a Gregorian calendar year, find the first year of the Japanese era name (also called nengō). When found, add the number of the Japanese year, then subtract 1.

Asuka period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Kōtoku[26] 孝徳天皇 (r. 645–654 AD)
Taika 大化	645–650 AD	7 years	Book of Documents, Book of Han, Book of Song
Hakuchi 白雉	650–654 AD	5 years	Book of Han
Emperor Tenmu[27] 天武天皇 (r. 673–686 AD)
Shuchō 朱鳥	686 AD	3 months	Book of Rites	Also rendered as Suchō, Akamitori, and Akamidori.
Emperor Monmu[28] 文武天皇 (r. 697–707 CE)
Taihō 大宝	701–704 AD	4 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Daihō.
Keiun 慶雲	704–708 AD	5 years	Selections of Refined Literature, Book of Jin	Also rendered as Kyōun. Usage continued by the Empress Genmei upon her ascension to the throne.
Empress Genmei[29] 元明天皇 (r. 707–715 CE)
Wadō 和銅	708–715 AD	8 years

Nara period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Empress Genshō[30] 元正天皇 (r. 715–724 CE)
Reiki 霊亀	715–717 AD	3 years	Classic of Changes
Yōrō 養老	717–724 AD	8 years	Book of Rites
Emperor Shōmu[31] 聖武天皇 (r. 724–749 AD)
Jinki 神亀	724–729 AD	6 years	Book of Rites with Commentaries of Dai De (大戴禮記), The Literary Expositor
Tenpyō 天平	729–749 AD	21 years	Classic of Changes, Great Learning	Also rendered as Tenbyō and Tenhei.
Tenpyō-kanpō 天平感宝	749 AD	4 months		Also rendered as Tenbyō-kanpō and Tenhei-kanpō.
Empress Kōken[32] 孝謙天皇 (r. 749–758 CE; first reign)
Tenpyō-shōhō 天平勝宝	749–757 AD	9 years		Also rendered as Tenbyō-shōhō and Tenpei-shōhō.
Tenpyō-hōji 天平宝字	757–765 AD	9 years		Also rendered as Tenbyō-hōji and Tenpei-hōji. Usage continued by the Emperor Junnin and the Empress Shōtoku upon their ascension to the throne.
Empress Shōtoku[33] 称徳天皇 (r. 764–770 CE; second reign)
Tenpyō-jingo 天平神護	765–767 AD	3 years		Also rendered as Tenbyō-jingo and Tenhei-jingo.
Jingo-keiun 神護景雲	767–770 AD	4 years		Usage continued by the Emperor Kōnin upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Kōnin[34] 光仁天皇 (r. 770–781 AD)
Hōki 宝亀	770–781 AD	12 years	Book of Rites
Emperor Kanmu[35] 桓武天皇 (r. 781–806 AD)
Ten'ō 天応	781–782 AD	2 years	Classic of Changes
Enryaku 延暦	782–806 AD	25 years	Book of Later Han	Usage continued by the Emperor Heizei upon his ascension to the throne.

Heian period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Heizei[36] 平城天皇 (r. 806–809 AD)
Daidō 大同	806–810 AD	5 years	Book of Rites	Usage continued by the Emperor Saga upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Saga[37] 嵯峨天皇 (r. 809–823 AD)
Kōnin 弘仁	810–824 AD	15 years		Usage continued by the Emperor Junna upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Junna[38] 淳和天皇 (r. 823–833 AD)
Tenchō 天長	824–834 AD	11 years		Usage continued by the Emperor Ninmyō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Ninmyō[39] 仁明天皇 (r. 833–850 AD)
Jōwa 承和	834–848 AD	15 years		Also rendered as Shōwa and Sōwa.
Kashō 嘉祥	848–851 AD	4 years		Also rendered as Kajō. Usage continued by the Emperor Montoku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Montoku[40] 文徳天皇 (r. 850–858 AD)
Ninju 仁寿	851–854 AD	4 years
Saikō 斉衡	854–857 AD	4 years
Ten'an 天安	857–859 AD	3 years		Also rendered as Tennan. Usage continued by the Emperor Seiwa upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Seiwa[41] 清和天皇 (r. 858–876 AD)
Jōgan 貞観	859–877 AD	19 years	Classic of Changes	Usage continued by the Emperor Yōzei upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Yōzei[42] 陽成天皇 (r. 876–884 CE)
Gangyō 元慶	877–885 AD	9 years		Also rendered as Gankyō and Genkei. Usage continued by the Emperor Kōkō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Kōkō[43] 光孝天皇 (r. 884–887 AD)
Ninna 仁和	885–889 AD	5 years		Also rendered as Ninwa. Usage continued by the Emperor Uda upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Uda[44] 宇多天皇 (r. 887–897 AD)
Kanpyō 寛平	889–898 AD	10 years		Also rendered as Kanpei, Kanbyō, Kanbei, and Kanhei. Usage continued by the Emperor Daigo upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Daigo[45] 醍醐天皇 (r. 897–930 AD)
Shōtai 昌泰	898–901 AD	4 years
Engi 延喜	901–923 AD	23 years	Book of Documents
Enchō 延長	923–931 AD	9 years	Selections of Refined Literature	Usage continued by the Emperor Suzaku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Suzaku[46] 朱雀天皇 (r. 930–946 AD)
Jōhei 承平	931–938 AD	8 years	Book of Han	Also rendered as Shōhei.
Tengyō 天慶	938–947 AD	10 years	Book of Han	Also rendered as Tenkei and Tenkyō. Usage continued by the Emperor Murakami upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Murakami[47] 村上天皇 (r. 946–967 AD)
Tenryaku 天暦	947–957 AD	11 years	Analects	Also rendered as Tenreki.
Tentoku 天徳	957–961 AD	5 years	Classic of Changes
Ōwa 応和	961–964 AD	4 years	Book of Jin
Kōhō 康保	964–968 AD	5 years	Book of Documents	Usage continued by the Emperor Reizei upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Reizei[48] 冷泉天皇 (r. 967–969 CE)
Anna 安和	968–970 AD	3 years	Book of Rites	Also rendered as Anwa. Usage continued by the Emperor En'yū upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor En'yū[49] 円融天皇 (r. 969–984 AD)
Tenroku 天禄	970–974 AD	5 years
Ten'en 天延	974–976 AD	3 years
Jōgen 貞元	976–978 AD	3 years		Also rendered as Teigen.
Tengen 天元	978–983 AD	6 years
Eikan 永観	983–985 AD	3 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Yōkan. Usage continued by the Emperor Kazan upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Kazan[50] 花山天皇 (r. 984–986 AD)
Kanna 寛和	985–987 AD	3 years		Also rendered as Kanwa. Usage continued by the Emperor Ichijō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Ichijō[51] 一条天皇 (r. 986–1011 AD)
Eien 永延	987–989 AD	3 years	Book of Han, Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Yōen.
Eiso 永祚	989–990 AD	2 years	Book of Jin, Old Book of Tang	Also rendered as Yōso.
Shōryaku 正暦	990–995 AD	6 years		Also rendered as Jōryaku and Shōreki.
Chōtoku 長徳	995–999 AD	5 years	Admonishment by the Colonel of the City Gates (城門校尉箴)	Also rendered as Jōryaku and Shōreki.
Chōhō 長保	999–1004 AD	6 years	Discourses of the States
Kankō 寛弘	1004–1012 AD	9 years	Book of Han	Usage continued by the Emperor Sanjō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Sanjō[52] 三条天皇 (r. 1011–1016 AD)
Chōwa 長和	1012–1017 AD	6 years	Book of Rites	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Ichijō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Ichijō[53] 後一条天皇 (r. 1016–1036 AD)
Kannin 寛仁	1017–1021 AD	5 years	Records of Kuaiji (會稽記)
Jian 治安	1021–1024 AD	4 years	Book of Han	Also rendered as Chian.
Manju 万寿	1024–1028 AD	5 years	Classic of Poetry
Chōgen 長元	1028–1037 AD	10 years	Six Secret Teachings	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Suzaku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Suzaku[54] 後朱雀天皇 (r. 1036–1045 AD)
Chōryaku 長暦	1037–1040 AD	4 years	Spring and Autumn Annals, Book of Jin	Also rendered as Chōreki.
Chōkyū 長久	1040–1044 AD	5 years	Book of the Way and of Virtue
Kantoku 寛徳	1044–1046 AD	3 years	Book of Later Han	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Reizei upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Reizei[55] 後冷泉天皇 (r. 1045–1068 AD)
Eishō 永承	1046–1053 AD	8 years	Book of Documents, Book of Jin, Book of Song	Also rendered as Eijō and Yōjō.
Tengi 天喜	1053–1058 AD	6 years	Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity	Also rendered as Tenki.
Kōhei 康平	1058–1065 AD	8 years	Book of Later Han
Jiryaku 治暦	1065–1069 AD	5 years	Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents (尚書正義)	Also rendered as Chiryaku. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Sanjō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Sanjō[56] 後三条天皇 (r. 1068–1073 AD)
Enkyū 延久	1069–1074 AD	6 years	Book of Documents	Usage continued by the Emperor Shirakawa upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Shirakawa[57] 白河天皇 (r. 1073–1087 CE)
Jōhō 承保	1074–1077 AD	4 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Shōhō and Shōho.
Jōryaku 承暦	1077–1081 AD	5 years	Weicheng Dianxun (維城典訓)	Also rendered as Shōryaku and Shōreki.
Eihō 永保	1081–1084 AD	4 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Yōhō.
Ōtoku 応徳	1084–1087 AD	4 years	Comprehensive Meaning of White Tiger Pavilion	Usage continued by the Emperor Horikawa upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Horikawa[58] 堀河天皇 (r. 1087–1107 AD)
Kanji 寛治	1087–1094 AD	8 years	Book of Rites
Kahō 嘉保	1094–1096 AD	3 years	Records of the Grand Historian
Eichō 永長	1096–1097 AD	2 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Yōchō.
Jōtoku 承徳	1097–1099 AD	3 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Shōtoku.
Kōwa 康和	1099–1104 CE	6 years	Theories of Politics (政論)
Chōji 長治	1104–1106 CE	3 years	Book of Han
Kajō 嘉承	1106–1108 CE	3 years	Book of Han	Usage continued by the Emperor Toba upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Toba[59] 鳥羽天皇 (r. 1107–1123 AD)
Tennin 天仁	1108–1110 AD	3 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Ten'ei 天永	1110–1113 AD	4 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Ten'yō.
Eikyū 永久	1113–1118 AD	6 years	Mao Commentary	Also rendered as Yōkyū.
Gen'ei 元永	1118–1120 AD	3 years		Also rendered as Gen'yō.
Hōan 保安	1120–1124 AD	5 years		Usage continued by the Emperor Sutoku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Sutoku[60] 崇徳天皇 (r. 1123–1142 AD)
Tenji 天治	1124–1126 AD	3 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Tenchi.
Daiji 大治	1126–1131 AD	6 years	Hetu Tingzuofu (河圖挺佐輔)	Also rendered as Taiji.
Tenshō 天承	1131–1132 AD	2 years	Book of Han	Also rendered as Tenjō.
Chōshō 長承	1132–1135 AD	4 years	Records of the Grand Historian	Also rendered as Chōjō.
Hōen 保延	1135–1141 AD	7 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Eiji 永治	1141–1142 AD	2 years	On the Standards for Literature (典論), Book of Jin	Usage continued by the Emperor Konoe upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Konoe[61] 近衛天皇 (r. 1142–1155 AD)
Kōji 康治	1142–1144 AD	3 years	Book of Song
Ten'yō 天養	1144–1145 AD	2 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Tennyō.
Kyūan 久安	1145–1151 AD	7 years	Book of Jin
Ninpei 仁平	1151–1154 AD	4 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Ninpyō, Ninbyō, Ninhyō, and Ninhei.
Kyūju 久寿	1154–1156 AD	3 years	Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Shirakawa upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Shirakawa[62] 後白河天皇 (r. 1155–1158 AD)
Hōgen 保元	1156–1159 AD	4 years	Instructions for the Yan Clan (顏氏家訓)	Also rendered as Hogen. Usage continued by the Emperor Nijō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Nijō[63] 二条天皇 (r. 1158–1165 CE)
Heiji 平治	1159–1160 AD	2 years	Records of the Grand Historian	Also rendered as Byōji.
Eiryaku 永暦	1160–1161 AD	2 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Yōryaku.
Ōhō 応保	1161–1163 AD	3 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Ōpō.
Chōkan 長寛	1163–1165 AD	3 years	Weicheng Dianxun (維城典訓)	Also rendered as Chōgan.
Eiman 永万	1165–1166 AD	2 years	Book of Han	Also rendered as Yōman. Usage continued by the Emperor Rokujō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Rokujō[64] 六条天皇 (r. 1165–1168 AD)
Nin'an 仁安	1166–1169 AD	4 years	Correct Interpretation of the Mao Commentary (毛詩正義)	Also rendered as Ninnan. Usage continued by the Emperor Takakura upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Takakura[64] 高倉天皇 (r. 1168–1180 AD)
Kaō 嘉応	1169–1171 AD	3 years	Book of Han
Jōan 承安	1171–1175 AD	5 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Shōan.
Angen 安元	1175–1177 AD	3 years	Book of Han
Jishō 治承	1177–1181 AD	5 years	Hetu Tingzuofu (河圖挺作輔)	Also rendered as Jijō and Chishō. Usage continued by the Emperor Antoku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Antoku[65] 安徳天皇 (r. 1180–1185 AD)
Yōwa 養和	1181–1182 AD	8 years	Book of Later Han
Juei 寿永	1182–1185 AD	4 years	Classic of Poetry	Also used by the Emperor Go-Toba from 1183 AD to 1184 AD.
Emperor Go-Toba[66] 後鳥羽天皇 (r. 1183–1198 AD)
Juei 寿永	1183–1184 AD	2 years	Classic of Poetry	Also used by the Emperor Antoku from 1182 AD to 1185 AD.
Genryaku 元暦	1184–1185 AD	2 years	Shangshu Kaolingyao (尚書考靈耀)

Kamakura period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Go-Toba 後鳥羽天皇 (r. 1183–1198 CE)
Bunji 文治	1185–1190 CE	6 years	Book of Rites	Also rendered as Monchi.
Kenkyū 建久	1190–1199 CE	10 years	Book of Jin	Usage continued by the Emperor Tsuchimikado upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Tsuchimikado[67] 土御門天皇 (r. 1198–1210 CE)
Shōji 正治	1199–1201 CE	3 years	Zhuangzi	Also rendered as Shōchi.
Kennin 建仁	1201–1204 CE	4 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Genkyū 元久	1204–1206 CE	3 years	Correct Interpretation of the Mao Commentary (毛詩正義)
Ken'ei 建永	1206–1207 CE	2 years	Selections of Refined Literature	Also rendered as Ken'yō.
Jōgen 承元	1207–1211 CE	5 years	Comprehensive Institutions	Also rendered as Shōgen. Usage continued by the Emperor Juntoku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Juntoku[68] 順徳天皇 (r. 1210–1221 CE)
Kenryaku 建暦	1211–1213 CE	3 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Kenreki.
Kempo 建保	1213–1219 CE	7 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Kenhō.
Jōkyū 承久	1219–1222 CE	4 years	Apocrypha of the Classic of Poetry (詩緯)	Also rendered as Shōkyū. Usage continued by the Emperor Chūkyō and the Emperor Go-Horikawa upon their ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Horikawa[69] 後堀河天皇 (r. 1221–1232 CE)
Jōō 貞応	1222–1224 CE	3 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Teiō.
Gennin 元仁	1224–1225 CE	2 years	Classic of Changes
Karoku 嘉禄	1225–1227 CE	3 years	Records of Diverse Matters
Antei 安貞	1227–1229 CE	3 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Anjō.
Kangi 寛喜	1229–1232 CE	4 years	Book of Wei	Also rendered as Kanki.
Jōei 貞永	1232–1233 CE	2 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Teiei. Usage continued by the Emperor Shijō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Shijō[70] 四条天皇 (r. 1232–1242 CE)
Tenpuku 天福	1233–1234 CE	2 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Tenfuku.
Bunryaku 文暦	1234–1235 CE	2 years	Selections of Refined Literature	Also rendered as Monryaku and Monreki.
Katei 嘉禎	1235–1238 CE	4 years	Book of Northern Qi
Ryakunin 暦仁	1238–1239 CE	2 years	Book of Sui	Also rendered as Rekinin.
En'ō 延応	1239–1240 CE	2 years	Selections of Refined Literature	Also rendered as Ennō.
Ninji 仁治	1240–1243 CE	4 years	New Book of Tang	Also rendered as Ninchi. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Saga upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Saga[71] 後嵯峨天皇 (r. 1242–1246 CE)
Kangen 寛元	1243–1247 CE	5 years	Book of Song	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Fukakusa upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Fukakusa[72] 後深草天皇 (r. 1246–1260 CE)
Hōji 宝治	1247–1249 CE	3 years	Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals
Kenchō 建長	1249–1256 CE	8 years	Book of Later Han
Kōgen 康元	1256–1257 CE	2 years
Shōka 正嘉	1257–1259 CE	3 years	Classified Collection Based on the Classics and Other Literature
Shōgen 正元	1259–1260 CE	2 years	Apocrypha of the Classic of Poetry (詩緯)	Usage continued by the Emperor Kameyama upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Kameyama[73] 亀山天皇 (r. 1260–1274 CE)
Bun'ō 文応	1260–1261 CE	2 years	Book of Jin	Also rendered as Bunnō.
Kōchō 弘長	1261–1264 CE	4 years	The Political Program of the Zhenguan Period (貞觀政要)
Bun'ei 文永	1264–1275 CE	12 years	Book of Later Han	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Uda upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Uda[74] 後宇多天皇 (r. 1274–1287 CE)
Kenji 建治	1275–1278 CE	4 years	Rites of Zhou
Kōan 弘安	1278–1288 CE	11 years	Veritable Records of the Emperor Taizong of Tang (唐太宗實錄)	Usage continued by the Emperor Fushimi upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Fushimi[75] 伏見天皇 (r. 1297–1298 CE)
Shōō 正応	1288–1293 CE	6 years	Notes on the Mao Commentary (毛詩注)
Einin 永仁	1293–1299 CE	7 years	Book of Jin	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Fushimi upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Fushimi[76] 後伏見天皇 (r. 1298–1301 CE)
Shōan 正安	1299–1302 CE	4 years	The School Sayings of Confucius	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Nijō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Nijō[77] 後二条天皇 (r. 1301–1308 CE)
Kengen 乾元	1302–1303 CE	2 years	Classic of Changes
Kagen 嘉元	1303–1306 CE	4 years	Classified Collection Based on the Classics and Other Literature
Tokuji 徳治	1306–1308 CE	3 years	The Commentary of Zuo	Usage continued by the Emperor Hanazono upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Hanazono[78] 花園天皇 (r. 1308–1318 CE)
Enkyō 延慶	1308–1311 CE	4 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Engyō and Enkei.
Ōchō 応長	1311–1312 CE	2 years	Old Book of Tang
Shōwa 正和	1312–1317 CE	6 years	Old Book of Tang
Bunpō 文保	1317–1319 CE	3 years	Book of Liang	Also rendered as Bunhō. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Daigo upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Daigo[79] 後醍醐天皇 (r. 1318–1339 CE)
Gen'ō 元応	1319–1321 CE	3 years	Old Book of Tang	Also rendered as Gennō.
Genkō 元亨	1321–1324 CE	4 years	Classic of Changes
Shōchū 正中	1324–1326 CE	3 years	Classic of Changes
Karyaku 嘉暦	1326–1329 CE	4 years	Old Book of Tang
Gentoku 元徳	1329–1332 CE	4 years	Classic of Changes, Correct Interpretation of the Classic of Changes (周易正義)
Genkō 元弘	1331–1334 CE	4 years	Classified Collection Based on the Classics and Other Literature

Southern Court

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Go-Daigo 後醍醐天皇 (r. 1318–1339 CE)
Kenmu 建武	1334–1336 CE	3 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Kenbu. Also used by the Emperor Kōmyō from 1336 CE to 1338 CE.
Engen 延元	1336–1340 CE	5 years	Book of Liang	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Murakami upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Murakami 後村上天皇 (r. 1339–1368 CE)
Kōkoku 興国	1340–1347 CE	8 years	The Commentary of Zuo, Selections of Refined Literature, New History of the Five Dynasties
Shōhei 正平	1347–1370 CE	24 years	Book of Song	Usage continued by the Emperor Chōkei upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Chōkei 長慶天皇 (r. 1368–1383 CE)
Kentoku 建徳	1370–1372 CE	3 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Bunchū 文中	1372–1375 CE	4 years	Classic of Changes
Tenju 天授	1375–1381 CE	7 years	Records of the Grand Historian
Kōwa 弘和	1381–1384 CE	4 years	Book of Documents	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Kameyama upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Kameyama 後亀山天皇 (r. 1383–1392 CE)
Genchū 元中	1384–1392 CE	9 years	Classic of Changes	Genchū 9 was superseded by Meitoku 3 in 1392 CE.

Northern Court

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Kōgon 光厳天皇 (r. 1331–1333 CE)
Shōkyō 正慶	1332–1333 CE	2 years	Correct Interpretation of the Classic of Changes (周易正義)	Also rendered as Shōkyō.
Emperor Kōmyō 光明天皇 (r. 1336–1348 CE)
Kenmu 建武	1336–1338 CE	3 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Kenbu. Also used by the Emperor Go-Daigo from 1334 CE to 1336 CE.
Ryakuō 暦応	1338–1342 CE	5 years	Records of Emperors and Kings (帝王世紀)	Also rendered as Rekiō.
Kōei 康永	1342–1345 CE	4 years	Book of Han
Jōwa 貞和	1345–1350 CE	6 years	Classified Collection Based on the Classics and Other Literature	Also rendered as Teiwa. Usage continued by the Emperor Sukō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Sukō 崇光天皇 (r. 1348–1351 CE)
Kannō 観応	1350–1352 CE	3 years	Zhuangzi	Also rendered as Kan'ō. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Kōgon upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Kōgon 後光厳天皇 (r. 1352–1371 CE)
Bunna 文和	1352–1356 CE	5 years	Records of the Three Kingdoms, Old Book of Tang	Also rendered as Bunwa.
Enbun 延文	1356–1361 CE	6 years	Book of Han
Kōan 康安	1361–1362 CE	2 years	Correct Interpretation of the Records of the Grand Historian (史記正義), Old Book of Tang
Jōji 貞治	1362–1368 CE	7 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Teiji.
Ōan 応安	1368–1375 CE	8 years	Correct Interpretation of the Mao Commentary (毛詩正義)	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-En'yū upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-En'yū 後円融天皇 (r. 1371–1382 CE)
Eiwa 永和	1375–1379 CE	5 years	Book of Documents, Classified Collection Based on the Classics and Other Literature
Kōryaku 康暦	1379–1381 CE	3 years	Old Book of Tang
Eitoku 永徳	1381–1384 CE	4 years	The Governing Principles of Ancient China (羣書治要)	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Komatsu upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Komatsu 後小松天皇 (r. 1382–1412 CE)
Shitoku 至徳	1384–1387 CE	4 years	Classic of Filial Piety
Kakei 嘉慶	1387–1389 CE	3 years	Correct Interpretation of the Mao Commentary (毛詩正義)	Also rendered as Kakyō.
Kōō 康応	1389–1390 CE	2 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Meitoku 明徳	1390–1394 CE	5 years	Book of Rites	Meitoku 3 superseded Genchū 9 in 1392 CE.

Muromachi period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Go-Komatsu 後小松天皇 (r. 1382–1412 CE)
Ōei 応永	1394–1428 CE	35 years	Institutional History of Tang	Usage continued by the Emperor Shōkō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Shōkō[80] 称光天皇 (r. 1412–1428 CE)
Shōchō 正長	1428–1429 CE	2 years	Correct Interpretation of the Book of Rites (禮記正義)	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Hanazono upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Hanazono[81] 後花園天皇 (r. 1428–1464 CE)
Eikyō 永享	1429–1441 CE	13 years	Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Eikō.
Kakitsu 嘉吉	1441–1444 CE	4 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Kakichi.
Bun'an 文安	1444–1449 CE	6 years	Book of Documents, Book of Jin	Also rendered as Bunnan.
Hōtoku 宝徳	1449–1452 CE	4 years	Old Book of Tang
Kyōtoku 享徳	1452–1455 CE	4 years	Book of Documents
Kōshō 康正	1455–1457 CE	3 years	Book of Documents, Records of the Grand Historian
Chōroku 長禄	1457–1460 CE	4 years	Han Feizi
Kanshō 寛正	1460–1466 CE	7 years	The School Sayings of Confucius	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado[82] 後土御門天皇 (r. 1464–1500 CE)
Bunshō 文正	1466–1467 CE	2 years	Xunzi	Also rendered as Monshō.
Ōnin 応仁	1467–1469 CE	3 years	Weicheng Dianxun (維城典訓)
Bunmei 文明	1469–1487 CE	19 years	Classic of Changes
Chōkyō 長享	1487–1489 CE	3 years	Selections of Refined Literature, The Commentary of Zuo, Book of Later Han
Entoku 延徳	1489–1492 CE	4 years	Mencius
Meiō 明応	1492–1501 CE	4 years	Classic of Changes	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Kashiwabara upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Kashiwabara[83] 後柏原天皇 (r. 1500–1526 CE)
Bunki 文亀	1501–1504 CE	4 years	The Literary Expositor
Eishō 永正	1504–1521 CE	18 years	Apocrypha of the Classic of Changes (周易緯)
Daiei 大永	1521–1528 CE	8 years	Comprehensive Institutions	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Nara upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Nara[84] 後奈良天皇 (r. 1526–1557 CE)
Kyōroku 享禄	1528–1532 CE	5 years	Classic of Changes
Tenbun 天文	1532–1555 CE	24 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Tenmon.
Kōji 弘治	1555–1558 CE	4 years	Book of Northern Qi	Usage continued by the Emperor Ōgimachi upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Ōgimachi[85] 正親町天皇 (r. 1557–1586 CE)
Eiroku 永禄	1558–1570 CE	13 years	The Governing Principles of Ancient China (羣書治要)	Also rendered as Yōroku.
Genki 元亀	1570–1573 CE	4 years	Mao Commentary, Selections of Refined Literature

Azuchi–Momoyama period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Ōgimachi 正親町天皇 (r. 1557–1586 CE)
Tenshō 天正	1573–1592 CE	20 years	Selections of Refined Literature, Book of the Way and of Virtue	Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Yōzei upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Yōzei[86] 後陽成天皇 (r. 1586–1611 CE)
Bunroku 文禄	1592–1596 CE	5 years	Comprehensive Institutions
Keichō 慶長	1596–1615 CE	20 years	Correct Interpretation of the Mao Commentary (毛詩注疏)	Also rendered as Kyōchō. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Mizunoo upon his ascension to the throne.

Edo period

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Go-Mizunoo[87] 後水尾天皇 (r. 1611–1629 CE)
Genna 元和	1615–1624 CE	10 years	Era name of the Emperor Xianzong of Tang	Also rendered as Genwa.
Kan'ei 寛永	1624–1644 CE	21 years	Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry (詩集傳)	Usage continued by the Empress Meishō and the Emperor Go-Kōmyō upon their ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Kōmyō[88] 後光明天皇 (r. 1643–1654 AD)
Shōhō 正保	1645–1648 CE	4 years	Book of Documents
Keian 慶安	1648–1652 CE	5 years	Classic of Changes	Also rendered as Kyōan.
Jōō 承応	1652–1655 CE	4 years	Book of Jin	Also rendered as Shōō. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Sai upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Sai[89] 後西天皇 (r. 1655–1663 AD)
Meireki 明暦	1655–1658 CE	4 years	Book of Han, Book of Later Han	Also rendered as Myōryaku and Meiryaku.
Manji 万治	1658–1661 CE	4 years	Records of the Grand Historian, The Political Program of the Zhenguan Period (貞觀政要)	Also rendered as Manchi.
Kanbun 寛文	1661–1673 CE	13 years	Xunzi	Usage continued by the Emperor Reigen upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Reigen[90] 霊元天皇 (r. 1663–1687 AD)
Enpō 延宝	1673–1681 CE	9 years	Book of Sui	Also rendered as Enhō. Formerly written as "延寳" in kanji.
Tenna 天和	1681–1684 CE	4 years	Book of Documents, Book of Han, Book of Later Han, Zhuangzi	Also rendered as Tenwa.
Jōkyō 貞享	1684–1688 CE	5 years	Classic of Changes	Usage continued by the Emperor Higashiyama upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Higashiyama[91] 東山天皇 (r. 1687–1709 AD)
Genroku 元禄	1688–1704 CE	7 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Hōei 宝永	1704–1711 CE	8 years	Old Book of Tang	Usage continued by the Emperor Nakamikado upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Nakamikado[92] 中御門天皇 (r. 1709–1735 AD)
Shōtoku 正徳	1711–1716 CE	6 years	Book of Documents
Kyōhō 享保	1716–1736 CE	21 years	Book of Zhou	Usage continued by the Emperor Sakuramachi upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Sakuramachi[93] 桜町天皇 (r. 1735–1747 AD)
Genbun 元文	1736–1741 CE	6 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Kanpō 寛保	1741–1744 CE	4 years	Discourses of the States	Also rendered as Kanhō.
Enkyō 延享	1744–1748 CE	5 years	Classified Collection Based on the Classics and Other Literature	Usage continued by the Emperor Momozono upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Momozono[94] 桃園天皇 (r. 1747–1762 AD)
Kan'en 寛延	1748–1751 CE	4 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Hōreki 宝暦	1751–1764 CE	14 years	The Political Program of the Zhenguan Period (貞觀政要)	Also rendered as Hōryaku. Usage continued by the Empress Go-Sakuramachi upon her ascension to the throne.
Empress Go-Sakuramachi[95] 後桜町天皇 (r. 1762–1771 AD)
Meiwa 明和	1764–1772 CE	9 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Myōwa. Usage continued by the Emperor Go-Momozono upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Go-Momozono[96] 後桃園天皇 (r. 1771–1779 AD)
An'ei 安永	1772–1781 CE	10 years	Selections of Refined Literature	Usage continued by the Emperor Kōkaku upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Kōkaku[97] 光格天皇 (r. 1780–1817 AD)
Tenmei 天明	1781–1789 CE	9 years	Book of Documents
Kansei 寛政	1789–1801 CE	13 years	The Commentary of Zuo
Kyōwa 享和	1801–1804 CE	4 years	Selections of Refined Literature
Bunka 文化	1804–1818 CE	15 years	Classic of Changes, Book of Later Han	Usage continued by the Emperor Ninkō upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Ninkō[98] 仁孝天皇 (r. 1817–1846 AD)
Bunsei 文政	1818–1830 CE	13 years	Book of Documents
Tenpō 天保	1830–1844 CE	15 years	Book of Documents	Also rendered as Tenhō.
Kōka 弘化	1844–1848 CE	5 years	Book of Documents	Usage continued by the Emperor Kōmei upon his ascension to the throne.
Emperor Kōmei 孝明天皇 (r. 1846–1867 AD)
Kaei 嘉永	1848–1854 CE	7 years	Book of Song
Ansei 安政	1854–1860 CE	7 years	The Governing Principles of Ancient China (羣書治要)
Man'en 万延	1860–1861 CE	2 years	Book of Later Han
Bunkyū 文久	1861–1864 CE	4 years	Book of Later Han
Genji 元治	1864–1865 CE	2 years	Classic of Changes, Records of the Three Kingdoms
Keiō 慶応	1865–1868 CE	4 years	Selections of Refined Literature	Usage continued by the Emperor Meiji upon his ascension to the throne.

Modern Japan

The "one reign, one era name" (一世一元) system was implemented in 1868 AD.

Era name	Period of use	Length of use	Derived from	Remark
Emperor Meiji 明治天皇 (r. 1867–1912 AD)
Meiji 明治	1868–1912 AD	45 years	Classic of Changes
Emperor Taishō 大正天皇 (r. 1912–1926 AD)
Taishō 大正	1912–1926 AD	15 years	Classic of Changes	Rejected proposals were Tenkō (天興), Kōka (興化), Eian (永安), Kentoku (乾徳), Shōtoku (昭徳).
Emperor Shōwa 昭和天皇 (r. 1926–1989 AD)
Shōwa 昭和	1926–1989 AD	64 years	Book of Documents	Rejected proposals were Jinka (神化), Genka (元化), Jinwa (神和), Dōwa (同和), Keimei (繼明), Junmei (順明), Meiho (明保), Kan'an (寛安), Gen'an (元安), Ryūsei (立成), Teigyō (定業), Kōbun (光文), Shōmei (章明), Kyōchū (協中).
Akihito 明仁 (r. 1989–2019 AD)
Heisei 平成	1989–2019 AD	31 years	Records of the Grand Historian, Book of Documents	Rejected proposals were Shūbun (修文), Seika (正化).
Naruhito 徳仁 (r. 2019 AD–present)
Reiwa 令和	2019 AD–present	3 years, 187 days	Man'yōshū	First Japanese era name extracted from Japanese literature instead of Chinese literature.[99][100][101][102] Rejected proposals were Eikō (英弘), Kyūka (久化), Kōshi (also rendered as Kōji; 広至), Banna (also rendered as Banwa; 万和), Banpo (also rendered as Banhō; 万保).

Non-nengō periods

Unofficial non-nengō periods (shinengō) before 701 are called itsunengō (逸年号). Pre-Taika chronology intervals include:

Reign of Emperor Jimmu, 660–581 BC
Reign of Emperor Suizei, 581–548 BC
Reign of Emperor Annei, 548–510 BC
Reign of Emperor Itoku, 510–475 BC
Reign of Emperor Kōshō, 475–392 BC
Reign of Emperor Kōan, 392–290 BC
Reign of Emperor Kōrei, 290–214 BC
Reign of Emperor Kōgen, 214–157 BC
Reign of Emperor Kaika, 157–97 BC
Reign of Emperor Sujin, 97–29 BC
Reign of Emperor Suinin, 29 BC–AD 71
Reign of Emperor Keikō, AD 71–131
Reign of Emperor Seimu, 131–192
Reign of Emperor Chūai, 192–201
Regency of Empress Jingū, 201–270
Reign of Emperor Ōjin, 270–313
Reign of Emperor Nintoku, 313–400
Reign of Emperor Richū, 400–406
Reign of Emperor Hanzei, 406–412
Reign of Emperor Ingyō, 412–454
Reign of Emperor Ankō, 454–457
Reign of Emperor Yūryaku, 457–480
Reign of Emperor Seinei, 480–485
Reign of Emperor Kenzō, 485–488
Reign of Emperor Ninken, 488–499
Reign of Emperor Buretsu, 499–507
Reign of Emperor Keitai, 507–534
Reign of Emperor Ankan, 534–536
Reign of Emperor Senka, 536–540
Reign of Emperor Kinmei, 540–572
Reign of Emperor Bidatsu, 572–586
Reign of Emperor Yōmei, 586–588
Reign of Emperor Sushun, 588–593
Reign of Emperor Suiko, 593–629[lower-alpha 2]
Reign of Emperor Jomei, 629–645

Post-Taika chronology intervals not covered by the nengō system include:

Reign of Empress Saimei, 655–662[105] ... Saimei (period)[12]
Reign of Emperor Tenji, 662–672[106] ... Tenji (period)[12]
Reign of Emperor Kōbun, 672–673[107] ... Kōbun (period) or Sujaku[12] (or Suzaku)
Reign of Emperor Tenmu, 673–686[108] ... Tenmu (period) or Hakuhō period[12][109]
Reign of Empress Jitō, 687–697[110] ... Jitō (period)[12]
Reign of Emperor Monmu, 697–701[111] ... Monmu (period)[12]

Notes

A list of shinengō and more information can be seen in the Japanese language entry on 私年号.
The National Diet Library (NDL) website explains that "Japan organized its first calendar in the 12th year of Suiko (604)", which was a pre-nengō time frame.Nussbaum (2005)[103][104]

Citations

Lü, Zongli (2003). Power of the words: Chen prophecy in Chinese politics, AD 265-618. ISBN 9783906769561.
Sogner, Sølvi (2001). Making Sense of Global History: The 19th International Congress of the Historical Sciences, Oslo 2000, Commemorative Volume. ISBN 9788215001067.
Jølstad, Anders; Lunde, Marianne (2000). "International Congress of Historical Sciences". International Congress of Historical Sciences. 19. ISBN 9788299561419. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
"Ancient tradition carries forward with Japan's new era". Retrieved 29 December 2019.
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Reiwa Nengō Announcement Footage, 1 April 2019
Rich, Motoko (30 April 2019). "Emperor Akihito, Who Gave Japan's Monarchy a Human Face, Abdicates Throne". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
"天皇陛下「生前退位」の意向示される ("His Majesty The Emperor Indicates His Intention to 'Abdicate'")" (in Japanese). NHK. 13 July 2016. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
"Japanese Emperor Akihito 'wishes to abdicate'". BBC News. 13 July 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
"Japan rings in new era as Naruhito becomes emperor". Al Jazeera. 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
Brown & Ishida (1979), p. 32.
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1956). Kyoto: the Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869, p. 321.
Murray (1894) p. 402, citing Bramsen (1880) pp. 54–55.The year-periods (nengō) do not ordinarily overlap with the reigns of the early monarchs; and generally, a new one was chosen whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event.
"The Japanese Calendar", National Diet Library, Japan
"年号一覧" (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 19 October 2007.
"JapaneseDate (Java Platform SE 8 )". Archived from the original on 15 May 2015.
"The Japanese Calendar's Y2K Moment".
"JDK 11 Release Notes, Important Changes, and Information". www.oracle.com. Retrieved 1 October 2018. Japanese calendars, both in java.time.chrono and java.util packages support the upcoming Japanese new era, which will be in effect from May 1st, 2019. While the name of the era was yet to be known, placeholder names ("元号" for Japanese, "NewEra" for other languages) are provided for its display names. The placeholder names will be replaced with the legitimate era name, Reiwa, in a future update, thus applications should not depend on those placeholder names.
Kishida, Naoki (14 July 2018). "Java 11 API Change Proposals". DZone Java. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
Request to reserve the code point for square Japanese new era name (PDF), 19 December 2017
The Japan National Body (23 May 2018), Update on SC2 N4577 "Request to reserve the code point for square Japanese new era name" (PDF)
"RESOLUTION M 23-10", Resolutions of the 23rd ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 Plenary Meeting, 28 June 2018
Future Additions to ISO/IEC 10646 (January 2018) (PDF), 25 January 2018
"Proposed New Characters: Pipeline Table". Unicode Consortium. 30 June 2018.
Whistler, Ken (16 July 2018), Unicode 12.1 Planning Considerations
Tsuchihashi (1952), p. 16.
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 266–267; Varley (1980) pp. 132–133; Titsingh (1834) pp. 47–50
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 268–269; Varley (1980), pp. 135–136; Titsingh (1834) pp. 58–59
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 270–271; Varley (1980), pp. 137–140; Titsingh (1834) pp. 60–63
Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 271; Varley (1980), p. 140; Titsingh (1834) pp. 63–65
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 271–272; Varley (1980), pp. 140–141; Titsingh (1834) pp. 65–67
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 272–273; Varley (1980), pp. 141–143; Titsingh (1834) pp. 67–73
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 274–275; Varley (1980), p. 143; Titsingh (1834) pp. 73–75
Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 276; Varley (1980), pp. 144–147; Titsingh (1834) pp. 78–81
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 276–277; Varley (1980), pp. 147–148; Titsingh (1834) pp. 81–85
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 277–279; Varley (1980), pp. 148–150; Titsingh (1834) pp. 86–95
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 279–280; Varley (1980), p. 151; Titsingh (1834) pp. 96–97
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 280–282; Varley (1980), pp. 151–164; Titsingh (1834) pp. 97–102
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 282–283; Varley (1980), p. 164; Titsingh (1834) pp. 103–106
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 283–284; Varley (1980), pp. 164–165; Titsingh (1834) pp. 106–112
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 285–286; Varley (1980), p. 165; Titsingh (1834) pp. 112–115
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 286–288; Varley (1980), pp. 166–170; Titsingh (1834) pp. 115–121
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 288–289; Varley (1980), pp. 170–171; Titsingh (1834) pp. 121–124
Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 289; Varley (1980), pp. 171–175; Titsingh (1834) pp. 124–125
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 289–290; Varley (1980), pp. 175–179; Titsingh (1834) pp. 125–129
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 290–293; Varley (1980), pp. 179–181; Titsingh (1834) pp. 129–134
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 294–295; Varley (1980), pp. 181–183; Titsingh (1834) pp. 134–138
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 295–298; Varley (1980), pp. 183–190; Titsingh (1834) pp. 139–142
Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 298; Varley (1980), pp. 190–191; Titsingh (1834) pp. 142–143
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 299–300; Varley (1980), pp. 191–192; Titsingh (1834) pp. 144–148
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 300–302; Varley (1980), p. 192; Titsingh (1834) pp. 148–149
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 302–307; Varley (1980), pp. 192–195; Titsingh (1834) pp. 150–154
Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 307; Varley (1980), p. 195; Titsingh (1834) pp. 154–155
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 307–310; Varley (1980), pp. 195–196; Titsingh (1834) pp. 156–160
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 310–311; Varley (1980), p. 197; Titsingh (1834) pp. 160–162
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 311–314; Varley (1980), pp. 197–198; Titsingh (1834) pp. 162–166
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 314–315; Varley (1980), pp. 198–199; Titsingh (1834) pp. 166–168
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 315–317; Varley (1980), pp. 199–202; Titsingh (1834) pp. 169–171
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 317–320; Varley (1980), p. 202; Titsingh (1834) pp. 172–178
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 320–322; Varley (1980), pp. 203–204; Titsingh (1834) pp. 178–181
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 322–324; Varley (1980), pp. 204–205; Titsingh (1834) pp. 181–185
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 324–326; Varley (1980), p. 205; Titsingh (1834) pp. 186–188
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 326–327; Varley (1980), pp. 205–208; Titsingh (1834) pp. 188–190188–190.
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 327–329; Varley (1980), pp. 208–212; Titsingh (1834) pp. 191–194
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 329–330; Varley (1980), p. 212; Titsingh (1834) pp. 194–195
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 333–334; Varley (1980), pp. 214–215; Titsingh (1834) pp. 20–207
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 334–339; Varley (1980), pp. 215–220; Titsingh (1834) pp. 207–221
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 339–341; Varley (1980), p. 220; Titsingh (1834) pp. 221–230
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 341–343; Varley (1980), pp. 221–223; Titsingh (1834) pp. 230–238
Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 344–349; Varley (1980), pp. 226–227; Titsingh (1834) pp. 238–241
Varley (1980), p. 227; Titsingh (1834) pp. 242–245
Varley (1980), pp. 228–231; Titsingh (1834) pp. 245–247
Varley (1980), pp. 231–232; Titsingh (1834) pp. 248–253
Varley (1980), pp. 232–233; Titsingh (1834) pp. 253–261
Varley (1980), pp. 233–237; Titsingh (1834) pp. 262–269
Varley (1980), pp. 237–238; Titsingh (1834) pp. 269–274
Varley (1980), pp. 238–239; Titsingh (1834) pp. 274–275
Varley (1980), p. 239; Titsingh (1834) pp. 275–278
Varley (1980), pp. 239–241; Titsingh (1834) pp. 278–281
Varley (1980), pp. 241–269; Titsingh (1834) pp. 281–286, 290–294
Titsingh (1834) pp. 327–331
Titsingh (1834) pp. 331–351
Titsingh (1834) pp. 352–364
Titsingh (1834) pp. 364–372
Titsingh (1834) pp. 372–382
Titsingh (1834) pp. 382–402
Titsingh (1834) pp. 402–409
Titsingh (1834) pp. 410–411
Titsingh (1834) pp. 412–413
Titsingh (1834) p. 413
Titsingh (1834) pp. 414–415
Titsingh (1834) pp. 415–416
Titsingh (1834) pp. 416–417
Titsingh (1834) pp. 417–418
Titsingh (1834) pp. 418–419
Titsingh (1834) p. 419
Titsingh (1834) pp. 419–420
Titsingh (1834) pp. 420–421
Titsingh (1834) p. 421
McCurry, Justin. "Reiwa: how Japan's new era name is breaking tradition".
Sim, Walter. "Sign of the times: Japan picks Reiwa to succeed Heisei as new imperial era from May 1".
Osaki, Tomohiro. "Reiwa: Japan reveals name of new era ahead of Emperor's abdication".
"新元号は「令和」（れいわ）万葉集典拠、国書由来は初". Asahi News Digital (in Japanese). 1 April 2019. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
"The Japanese Calendar".
"Jikkan Jūnishi" p. 420.
NengoCalc (655) 斉明 Saimei
NengoCalc (622) 天智 Tenji
NengoCalc (672) 弘文 Kōbun
NengoCalc (673) 弘文 Tenmu
Compare Nussbaum (2005) "Hakuhō" p. 280; "Hakuhou jidai". JAANUS (Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System). 2001. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
NengoCalc (687) 持統 Jitō
NengoCalc (697) 文武 Monmu

References

Bramsen, William. (1880). Japanese Chronological Tables: Showing the Date, According to the Julian or Gregorian Calendar, of the First Day of Each Japanese Month, from Tai-kwa 1st year to Mei-ji 6th year (645 AD to 1873 AD): with an Introductory Essay on Japanese Chronology and Calendars. Tokyo: Seishi Bunsha. OCLC 35728014.
Brown, Delmer M.; Ishida, Ichirō, eds. (1979). The Future and the Past: a translation and study of the Gukanshô, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0. OCLC 251325323.
Daijirin, 2nd edition.
Daijisen, 1st edition.
Kōjien, 5th edition.
Murray, David (1894). The Story of Japan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. OCLC 1016340.
NengoCalc. Online conversion of Japanese dates into their Western equivalents; calculation is based on tables from Tsuchihashi (1952) and Zöllner (2003).
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Translated by Käthe Roth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5. OCLC 58053128.
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac (1834). Nipon o daï itsi ran: ou Annales des empereurs du Japon (in French). Translated by Titsingh, Isaac. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691. Nihon Ōdai Ichiran
Tsuchihashi, Paul Yashita (1952). Japanese chronological tables from 601 to 1872 (邦曆西曆對照表: 自推古九年至明治五年, Hōreki seireki taishōhyō: Suiko kyūnen yori Meiji gonen ni itaru) (in Japanese). Tokyo: Sophia University. OCLC 001291275.
Varley, H. Paul (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-04940-5. OCLC 59145842.
Zöllner, Reinhard (2003). Japanische Zeitrechnung: ein Handbuch. Munich: Iudicium Verlag. ISBN 9783891297834. OCLC 249297777.
二中歴1 第一～第四（尊経閣善本影印集成） ISBN 4-8406-2314-7.
二中歴2 第五～第十（尊経閣善本影印集成） ISBN 4-8406-2315-5.
二中歴3 第十一～第十三（尊経閣善本影印集成） ISBN 4-8406-2316-3.
所功, (1977). 日本の年号　揺れ動く＜元号＞問題の原点. 雄山閣.
井上清, (1989). 元号制批判やめよう元号を. 明石書店. ISBN 4-7503-0236-8.

External links

Nengō converter

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[jawiki-15] A list of shinengō and more information can be seen in the Japanese language entry on 私年号.

[106] The National Diet Library (NDL) website explains that "Japan organized its first calendar in the 12th year of Suiko (604)", which was a pre-nengō time frame.Nussbaum (2005)[103][104]

[First1-1] Lü, Zongli (2003). Power of the words: Chen prophecy in Chinese politics, AD 265-618. ISBN 9783906769561.

[First2-2] Sogner, Sølvi (2001). Making Sense of Global History: The 19th International Congress of the Historical Sciences, Oslo 2000, Commemorative Volume. ISBN 9788215001067.

[Sinosphere-3] Jølstad, Anders; Lunde, Marianne (2000). "International Congress of Historical Sciences". International Congress of Historical Sciences. 19. ISBN 9788299561419. Retrieved 29 December 2019.

[Japan-4] "Ancient tradition carries forward with Japan's new era". Retrieved 29 December 2019.

[reiwaannouncement-5] Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Reiwa Nengō Announcement Footage, 1 April 2019

[6] Rich, Motoko (30 April 2019). "Emperor Akihito, Who Gave Japan's Monarchy a Human Face, Abdicates Throne". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2019.

[7] "天皇陛下「生前退位」の意向示される ("His Majesty The Emperor Indicates His Intention to 'Abdicate'")" (in Japanese). NHK. 13 July 2016. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2016.

[8] "Japanese Emperor Akihito 'wishes to abdicate'". BBC News. 13 July 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016.

[9] "Japan rings in new era as Naruhito becomes emperor". Al Jazeera. 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.

[FOOTNOTEBrownIshida1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidw4f5FrmIJKICpgPA32_32]-10] Brown & Ishida (1979), p. 32.

[11] Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1956). Kyoto: the Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869, p. 321.

[murray402-12] Murray (1894) p. 402, citing Bramsen (1880) pp. 54–55.The year-periods (nengō) do not ordinarily overlap with the reigns of the early monarchs; and generally, a new one was chosen whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event.

[13] "The Japanese Calendar", National Diet Library, Japan

[14] "年号一覧" (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 19 October 2007.

[16] "JapaneseDate (Java Platform SE 8 )". Archived from the original on 15 May 2015.

[17] "The Japanese Calendar's Y2K Moment".

[18] "JDK 11 Release Notes, Important Changes, and Information". www.oracle.com. Retrieved 1 October 2018. Japanese calendars, both in java.time.chrono and java.util packages support the upcoming Japanese new era, which will be in effect from May 1st, 2019. While the name of the era was yet to be known, placeholder names ("元号" for Japanese, "NewEra" for other languages) are provided for its display names. The placeholder names will be replaced with the legitimate era name, Reiwa, in a future update, thus applications should not depend on those placeholder names.

[19] Kishida, Naoki (14 July 2018). "Java 11 API Change Proposals". DZone Java. Retrieved 1 October 2018.

[20] Request to reserve the code point for square Japanese new era name (PDF), 19 December 2017

[21] The Japan National Body (23 May 2018), Update on SC2 N4577 "Request to reserve the code point for square Japanese new era name" (PDF)

[22] "RESOLUTION M 23-10", Resolutions of the 23rd ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 Plenary Meeting, 28 June 2018

[23] Future Additions to ISO/IEC 10646 (January 2018) (PDF), 25 January 2018

[24] "Proposed New Characters: Pipeline Table". Unicode Consortium. 30 June 2018.

[25] Whistler, Ken (16 July 2018), Unicode 12.1 Planning Considerations

[FOOTNOTETsuchihashi195216-26] Tsuchihashi (1952), p. 16.

[27] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 266–267; Varley (1980) pp. 132–133; Titsingh (1834) pp. 47–50

[28] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 268–269; Varley (1980), pp. 135–136; Titsingh (1834) pp. 58–59

[29] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 270–271; Varley (1980), pp. 137–140; Titsingh (1834) pp. 60–63

[30] Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 271; Varley (1980), p. 140; Titsingh (1834) pp. 63–65

[31] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 271–272; Varley (1980), pp. 140–141; Titsingh (1834) pp. 65–67

[32] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 272–273; Varley (1980), pp. 141–143; Titsingh (1834) pp. 67–73

[33] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 274–275; Varley (1980), p. 143; Titsingh (1834) pp. 73–75

[34] Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 276; Varley (1980), pp. 144–147; Titsingh (1834) pp. 78–81

[35] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 276–277; Varley (1980), pp. 147–148; Titsingh (1834) pp. 81–85

[36] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 277–279; Varley (1980), pp. 148–150; Titsingh (1834) pp. 86–95

[37] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 279–280; Varley (1980), p. 151; Titsingh (1834) pp. 96–97

[38] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 280–282; Varley (1980), pp. 151–164; Titsingh (1834) pp. 97–102

[39] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 282–283; Varley (1980), p. 164; Titsingh (1834) pp. 103–106

[40] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 283–284; Varley (1980), pp. 164–165; Titsingh (1834) pp. 106–112

[41] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 285–286; Varley (1980), p. 165; Titsingh (1834) pp. 112–115

[42] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 286–288; Varley (1980), pp. 166–170; Titsingh (1834) pp. 115–121

[43] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 288–289; Varley (1980), pp. 170–171; Titsingh (1834) pp. 121–124

[44] Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 289; Varley (1980), pp. 171–175; Titsingh (1834) pp. 124–125

[45] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 289–290; Varley (1980), pp. 175–179; Titsingh (1834) pp. 125–129

[46] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 290–293; Varley (1980), pp. 179–181; Titsingh (1834) pp. 129–134

[47] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 294–295; Varley (1980), pp. 181–183; Titsingh (1834) pp. 134–138

[48] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 295–298; Varley (1980), pp. 183–190; Titsingh (1834) pp. 139–142

[49] Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 298; Varley (1980), pp. 190–191; Titsingh (1834) pp. 142–143

[50] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 299–300; Varley (1980), pp. 191–192; Titsingh (1834) pp. 144–148

[51] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 300–302; Varley (1980), p. 192; Titsingh (1834) pp. 148–149

[52] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 302–307; Varley (1980), pp. 192–195; Titsingh (1834) pp. 150–154

[53] Brown & Ishida (1979) p. 307; Varley (1980), p. 195; Titsingh (1834) pp. 154–155

[54] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 307–310; Varley (1980), pp. 195–196; Titsingh (1834) pp. 156–160

[55] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 310–311; Varley (1980), p. 197; Titsingh (1834) pp. 160–162

[56] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 311–314; Varley (1980), pp. 197–198; Titsingh (1834) pp. 162–166

[57] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 314–315; Varley (1980), pp. 198–199; Titsingh (1834) pp. 166–168

[58] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 315–317; Varley (1980), pp. 199–202; Titsingh (1834) pp. 169–171

[59] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 317–320; Varley (1980), p. 202; Titsingh (1834) pp. 172–178

[60] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 320–322; Varley (1980), pp. 203–204; Titsingh (1834) pp. 178–181

[61] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 322–324; Varley (1980), pp. 204–205; Titsingh (1834) pp. 181–185

[62] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 324–326; Varley (1980), p. 205; Titsingh (1834) pp. 186–188

[63] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 326–327; Varley (1980), pp. 205–208; Titsingh (1834) pp. 188–190188–190.

[64] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 327–329; Varley (1980), pp. 208–212; Titsingh (1834) pp. 191–194

[t194-65] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 329–330; Varley (1980), p. 212; Titsingh (1834) pp. 194–195

[66] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 333–334; Varley (1980), pp. 214–215; Titsingh (1834) pp. 20–207

[67] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 334–339; Varley (1980), pp. 215–220; Titsingh (1834) pp. 207–221

[68] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 339–341; Varley (1980), p. 220; Titsingh (1834) pp. 221–230

[69] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 341–343; Varley (1980), pp. 221–223; Titsingh (1834) pp. 230–238

[70] Brown & Ishida (1979) pp. 344–349; Varley (1980), pp. 226–227; Titsingh (1834) pp. 238–241

[71] Varley (1980), p. 227; Titsingh (1834) pp. 242–245

[72] Varley (1980), pp. 228–231; Titsingh (1834) pp. 245–247

[73] Varley (1980), pp. 231–232; Titsingh (1834) pp. 248–253

[74] Varley (1980), pp. 232–233; Titsingh (1834) pp. 253–261

[75] Varley (1980), pp. 233–237; Titsingh (1834) pp. 262–269

[76] Varley (1980), pp. 237–238; Titsingh (1834) pp. 269–274

[77] Varley (1980), pp. 238–239; Titsingh (1834) pp. 274–275

[78] Varley (1980), p. 239; Titsingh (1834) pp. 275–278

[79] Varley (1980), pp. 239–241; Titsingh (1834) pp. 278–281

[80] Varley (1980), pp. 241–269; Titsingh (1834) pp. 281–286, 290–294

[81] Titsingh (1834) pp. 327–331

[82] Titsingh (1834) pp. 331–351

[83] Titsingh (1834) pp. 352–364

[84] Titsingh (1834) pp. 364–372

[85] Titsingh (1834) pp. 372–382

[86] Titsingh (1834) pp. 382–402

[87] Titsingh (1834) pp. 402–409

[88] Titsingh (1834) pp. 410–411

[89] Titsingh (1834) pp. 412–413

[90] Titsingh (1834) p. 413

[91] Titsingh (1834) pp. 414–415

[92] Titsingh (1834) pp. 415–416

[93] Titsingh (1834) pp. 416–417

[94] Titsingh (1834) pp. 417–418

[95] Titsingh (1834) pp. 418–419

[96] Titsingh (1834) p. 419

[97] Titsingh (1834) pp. 419–420

[98] Titsingh (1834) pp. 420–421

[99] Titsingh (1834) p. 421

[100] McCurry, Justin. "Reiwa: how Japan's new era name is breaking tradition".

[101] Sim, Walter. "Sign of the times: Japan picks Reiwa to succeed Heisei as new imperial era from May 1".

[102] Osaki, Tomohiro. "Reiwa: Japan reveals name of new era ahead of Emperor's abdication".

[103] "新元号は「令和」（れいわ）万葉集典拠、国書由来は初". Asahi News Digital (in Japanese). 1 April 2019. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2019.

[104] "The Japanese Calendar".

[105] "Jikkan Jūnishi" p. 420.

[107] NengoCalc (655) 斉明 Saimei

[108] NengoCalc (622) 天智 Tenji

[109] NengoCalc (672) 弘文 Kōbun

[110] NengoCalc (673) 弘文 Tenmu

[Nussbaum-111] Compare Nussbaum (2005) "Hakuhō" p. 280; "Hakuhou jidai". JAANUS (Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System). 2001. Retrieved 24 January 2011.

[112] NengoCalc (687) 持統 Jitō

[113] NengoCalc (697) 文武 Monmu