Planck constant

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it. It was first observed by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, although credit is usually reserved for Heinrich Hertz,[18] who published the first thorough investigation in 1887. Another particularly thorough investigation was published by Philipp Lenard (Lénárd Fülöp) in 1902.[19] Einstein's 1905 paper[20] discussing the effect in terms of light quanta would earn him the Nobel Prize in 1921,[18] after his predictions had been confirmed by the experimental work of Robert Andrews Millikan.[21] The Nobel committee awarded the prize for his work on the photo-electric effect, rather than relativity, both because of a bias against purely theoretical physics not grounded in discovery or experiment, and dissent amongst its members as to the actual proof that relativity was real.[22][23]

Before Einstein's paper, electromagnetic radiation such as visible light was considered to behave as a wave: hence the use of the terms "frequency" and "wavelength" to characterize different types of radiation. The energy transferred by a wave in a given time is called its intensity. The light from a theatre spotlight is more intense than the light from a domestic lightbulb; that is to say that the spotlight gives out more energy per unit time and per unit space (and hence consumes more electricity) than the ordinary bulb, even though the color of the light might be very similar. Other waves, such as sound or the waves crashing against a seafront, also have their intensity. However, the energy account of the photoelectric effect didn't seem to agree with the wave description of light.

The "photoelectrons" emitted as a result of the photoelectric effect have a certain kinetic energy, which can be measured. This kinetic energy (for each photoelectron) is independent of the intensity of the light,[19] but depends linearly on the frequency;[21] and if the frequency is too low (corresponding to a photon energy that is less than the work function of the material), no photoelectrons are emitted at all, unless a plurality of photons, whose energetic sum is greater than the energy of the photoelectrons, acts virtually simultaneously (multiphoton effect).[24] Assuming the frequency is high enough to cause the photoelectric effect, a rise in intensity of the light source causes more photoelectrons to be emitted with the same kinetic energy, rather than the same number of photoelectrons to be emitted with higher kinetic energy.[19]

Einstein's explanation for these observations was that light itself is quantized; that the energy of light is not transferred continuously as in a classical wave, but only in small "packets" or quanta. The size of these "packets" of energy, which would later be named photons, was to be the same as Planck's "energy element", giving the modern version of the Planck–Einstein relation:

${\displaystyle E=hf.}$

Einstein's postulate was later proven experimentally: the constant of proportionality between the frequency of incident light ${\displaystyle f}$ and the kinetic energy of photoelectrons ${\displaystyle E}$ was shown to be equal to the Planck constant ${\displaystyle h}$.[21]

A schematization of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. The transition shown from the n = 3 level to the n = 2 level gives rise to visible light of wavelength 656 nm (red), as the model predicts.

It was John William Nicholson in 1912 who introduced h-bar into the theory of the atom which was the first quantum and nuclear atom and the first to quantize angular momentum as h/2π. [25][26][27] Niels Bohr quoted him in his 1913 paper of the Bohr model of the atom.[28] The influence of the work of Nicholson’s nuclear quantum atomic model on Bohr’s model has been written about by many historians.[29][30][31]

Niels Bohr introduced the third quantized model of the atom in 1913, in an attempt to overcome a major shortcoming of Rutherford's classical model. The first quantized model of the atom was introduced in 1910 by Arthur Erich Haas and was discussed at the 1911 Solvay conference.[32][33] In classical electrodynamics, a charge moving in a circle should radiate electromagnetic radiation. If that charge were to be an electron orbiting a nucleus, the radiation would cause it to lose energy and spiral down into the nucleus. Bohr solved this paradox with explicit reference to Planck's work: an electron in a Bohr atom could only have certain defined energies ${\displaystyle E_{n}}$

${\displaystyle E_{n}=-{\frac {hcR_{\infty }}{n^{2}}},}$

where ${\displaystyle c}$ is the speed of light in vacuum, ${\displaystyle R_{\infty }}$ is an experimentally determined constant (the Rydberg constant) and ${\displaystyle n\in \{1,2,3,...\}}$. Once the electron reached the lowest energy level (${\displaystyle n=1}$), it could not get any closer to the nucleus (lower energy). This approach also allowed Bohr to account for the Rydberg formula, an empirical description of the atomic spectrum of hydrogen, and to account for the value of the Rydberg constant ${\displaystyle R_{\infty }}$ in terms of other fundamental constants.

Bohr also introduced the quantity ${\displaystyle \hbar ={\frac {h}{2\pi }}}$, now known as the reduced Planck constant or Dirac constant, as the quantum of angular momentum. At first, Bohr thought that this was the angular momentum of each electron in an atom: this proved incorrect and, despite developments by Sommerfeld and others, an accurate description of the electron angular momentum proved beyond the Bohr model. The correct quantization rules for electrons – in which the energy reduces to the Bohr model equation in the case of the hydrogen atom – were given by Heisenberg's matrix mechanics in 1925 and the Schrödinger wave equation in 1926: the reduced Planck constant remains the fundamental quantum of angular momentum. In modern terms, if ${\displaystyle J}$ is the total angular momentum of a system with rotational invariance, and ${\displaystyle J_{z}}$ the angular momentum measured along any given direction, these quantities can only take on the values

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}J^{2}=j(j+1)\hbar ^{2},\qquad &j=0,{\tfrac {1}{2}},1,{\tfrac {3}{2}},\ldots ,\\J_{z}=m\hbar ,\qquad \qquad \quad &m=-j,-j+1,\ldots ,j.\end{aligned}}}$

The Planck constant also occurs in statements of Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Given numerous particles prepared in the same state, the uncertainty in their position, ${\displaystyle \Delta x}$, and the uncertainty in their momentum, ${\displaystyle \Delta p_{x}}$, obey

${\displaystyle \Delta x\,\Delta p_{x}\geq {\frac {\hbar }{2}},}$

where the uncertainty is given as the standard deviation of the measured value from its expected value. There are several other such pairs of physically measurable conjugate variables which obey a similar rule. One example is time vs. energy. The inverse relationship between the uncertainty of the two conjugate variables forces a tradeoff in quantum experiments, as measuring one quantity more precisely results in the other quantity becoming imprecise.

In addition to some assumptions underlying the interpretation of certain values in the quantum mechanical formulation, one of the fundamental cornerstones to the entire theory lies in the commutator relationship between the position operator ${\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}$ and the momentum operator ${\displaystyle {\hat {p}}}$:

${\displaystyle [{\hat {p}}_{i},{\hat {x}}_{j}]=-i\hbar \delta _{ij},}$

where ${\displaystyle \delta _{ij}}$ is the Kronecker delta.

In 1923, Louis de Broglie generalized the Planck–Einstein relation by postulating that the Planck constant represents the proportionality between the momentum and the quantum wavelength of not just the photon, but the quantum wavelength of any particle. This was confirmed by experiments soon afterward. This holds throughout the quantum theory, including electrodynamics. The de Broglie wavelength λ of the particle is given by

${\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}},}$

where p denotes the linear momentum of a particle, such as a photon, or any other elementary particle.

The energy of a photon with angular frequency ω = 2πf is given by

${\displaystyle E=\hbar \omega ,}$

while its linear momentum relates to

${\displaystyle p=\hbar k,}$

where k is an angular wavenumber.

These two relations are the temporal and spatial parts of the special relativistic expression using 4-vectors.

${\displaystyle P^{\mu }=\left({\frac {E}{c}},{\vec {p}}\right)=\hbar K^{\mu }=\hbar \left({\frac {\omega }{c}},{\vec {k}}\right).}$

Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value).[34] Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was speculated that physical action could not take on an arbitrary value, but instead was restricted to integer multiples of a very small quantity, the "[elementary] quantum of action", now called the Planck constant.[35][note 1] This was a significant conceptual part of the so-called "old quantum theory" developed by physicists including Bohr, Sommerfeld, and Ishiwara, in which particle trajectories exist but are hidden, but quantum laws constrain them based on their action. This view has been replaced by fully modern quantum theory, in which definite trajectories of motion do not even exist; rather, the particle is represented by a wavefunction spread out in space and in time. Thus there is no value of the action as classically defined. Related to this is the concept of energy quantization which existed in old quantum theory and also exists in altered form in modern quantum physics. Classical physics cannot explain either quantization of energy or the lack of classical particle motion.

In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, quantization of energy also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.[36]

In the system of "natural units" used by theoretical physicists, ${\displaystyle \hbar }$ is defined to be exactly one. In these units, h is then exactly ${\displaystyle 2\pi }$.

Since 2019, the numerical value of the Planck constant has been fixed, with a finite decimal representation. Under the present definition of the kilogram, which states that "The kilogram [...] is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of h to be 6.62607015×10⁻³⁴ when expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m²⋅s⁻¹, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of speed of light c and duration of hyperfine transition of the ground state of an unperturbed caesium-133 atom Δν_Cs."[38] This implies that mass metrology aims to find the value of one kilogram, and the kilogram is compensating. Every experiment aiming to measure the kilogram (such as the Kibble balance and the X-ray crystal density method), will essentially refine the value of a kilogram.

As an illustration of this, suppose the decision of making h to be exact was taken in 2010, when its measured value was 6.62606957×10⁻³⁴ J⋅s, thus the present definition of kilogram was also enforced. In the future, the value of one kilogram must be refined to 6.62607015/6.62606957 ≈ 1.0000001 times the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK).

The Planck constant is related to the quantization of light and matter. It can be seen as a subatomic-scale constant. In a unit system adapted to subatomic scales, the electronvolt is the appropriate unit of energy and the petahertz the appropriate unit of frequency. Atomic unit systems are based (in part) on the Planck constant. The physical meaning of the Planck constant could suggest some basic features of our physical world.

The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typical of the order of kilojoules and times are typical of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.

Equivalently, the order of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of microscopic particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (a wavelength that can be perceived by the human eye to be green) has a frequency of 540 THz (540×10¹² Hz). Each photon has an energy E = hf = 3.58×10⁻¹⁹ J. That is a very small amount of energy in terms of everyday experience, but everyday experience is not concerned with individual photons any more than with individual atoms or molecules. An amount of light more typical in everyday experience (though much larger than the smallest amount perceivable by the human eye) is the energy of one mole of photons; its energy can be computed by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant, N_A = 6.02214076×10²³ mol⁻¹[39], with the result of 216 kJ, about the food energy in three apples.

The Josephson constant K_J relates the potential difference U generated by the Josephson effect at a "Josephson junction" with the frequency ν of the microwave radiation. The theoretical treatment of Josephson effect suggests very strongly that K_J = 2e/h.

${\displaystyle K_{\rm {J}}={\frac {\nu }{U}}={\frac {2e}{h}}.}$

The Josephson constant may be measured by comparing the potential difference generated by an array of Josephson junctions with a potential difference which is known in SI volts. The measurement of the potential difference in SI units is done by allowing an electrostatic force to cancel out a measurable gravitational force, in a Kibble balance. Assuming the validity of the theoretical treatment of the Josephson effect, K_J is related to the Planck constant by

${\displaystyle h={\frac {8\alpha }{\mu _{0}c_{0}K_{\rm {J}}^{2}}}.}$

A Kibble balance (formerly known as a watt balance)[40] is an instrument for comparing two powers, one of which is measured in SI watts and the other of which is measured in conventional electrical units. From the definition of the conventional watt W₉₀, this gives a measure of the product K_J²R_K in SI units, where R_K is the von Klitzing constant which appears in the quantum Hall effect. If the theoretical treatments of the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect are valid, and in particular assuming that R_K = h/e², the measurement of K_J²R_K is a direct determination of the Planck constant.

${\displaystyle h={\frac {4}{K_{\rm {J}}^{2}R_{\rm {K}}}}.}$

The gyromagnetic ratio γ is the constant of proportionality between the frequency ν of nuclear magnetic resonance (or electron paramagnetic resonance for electrons) and the applied magnetic field B: ν = γB. It is difficult to measure gyromagnetic ratios precisely because of the difficulties in precisely measuring B, but the value for protons in water at 25 °C is known to better than a uncertainty of ${\displaystyle {10}^{-6}}$. The protons are said to be "shielded" from the applied magnetic field by the electrons in the water molecule, the same effect that gives rise to chemical shift in NMR spectroscopy, and this is indicated by a prime on the symbol for the gyromagnetic ratio, γ′_p. The gyromagnetic ratio is related to the shielded proton magnetic moment μ′_p, the spin number I (I = 1⁄2 for protons) and the reduced Planck constant.

${\displaystyle \gamma _{\text{p}}^{\prime }={\frac {\mu _{\text{p}}^{\prime }}{I\hbar }}={\frac {2\mu _{\text{p}}^{\prime }}{\hbar }}.}$

The ratio of the shielded proton magnetic moment μ′_p to the electron magnetic moment μ_e can be measured separately and to high precision, as the imprecisely known value of the applied magnetic field cancels itself out in taking the ratio. The value of μ_e in Bohr magnetons is also known: it is half the electron g-factor g_e. Hence

${\displaystyle \mu _{\text{p}}^{\prime }={\frac {\mu _{\text{p}}^{\prime }}{\mu _{\text{e}}}}{\frac {g_{\text{e}}\mu _{\text{B}}}{2}}}$

${\displaystyle \gamma _{\text{p}}^{\prime }={\frac {\mu _{\text{p}}^{\prime }}{\mu _{\text{e}}}}{\frac {g_{\text{e}}\mu _{\text{B}}}{\hbar }}.}$

A further complication is that the measurement of γ′_p involves the measurement of an electric current: this is invariably measured in conventional amperes rather than in SI amperes, so a conversion factor is required. The symbol Γ′_p-90 is used for the measured gyromagnetic ratio using conventional electrical units. In addition, there are two methods of measuring the value, a "low-field" method and a "high-field" method, and the conversion factors are different in the two cases. Only the high-field value Γ′_p-90(hi) is of interest in determining the Planck constant.

${\displaystyle \gamma _{\text{p}}^{\prime }={\frac {K_{\text{J-90}}R_{\text{K-90}}}{K_{\text{J}}R_{\text{K}}}}\Gamma _{\text{p-90}}^{\prime }({\text{hi}})={\frac {K_{\text{J-90}}R_{\text{K-90}}e}{2}}\Gamma _{\text{p-90}}^{\prime }({\text{hi}}).}$

Substitution gives the expression for the Planck constant in terms of Γ′_p-90(hi):

${\displaystyle h={\frac {c_{0}\alpha ^{2}g_{\text{e}}}{2K_{\text{J-90}}R_{\text{K-90}}R_{\infty }\Gamma _{\text{p-90}}^{\prime }({\text{hi}})}}{\frac {\mu _{\text{p}}^{\prime }}{\mu _{\text{e}}}}.}$

The Faraday constant F is the charge of one mole of electrons, equal to the Avogadro constant N_A multiplied by the elementary charge e. It can be determined by careful electrolysis experiments, measuring the amount of silver dissolved from an electrode in a given time and for a given electric current. Substituting the definitions of N_A and e gives the relation to the Planck constant.

${\displaystyle h={\frac {c_{0}M_{\rm {u}}A_{\rm {r}}({\rm {e}})\alpha ^{2}}{R_{\infty }}}{\frac {1}{K_{\text{J}}R_{\text{K}}F}}.}$

The X-ray crystal density method is primarily a method for determining the Avogadro constant N_A but as the Avogadro constant is related to the Planck constant it also determines a value for h. The principle behind the method is to determine N_A as the ratio between the volume of the unit cell of a crystal, measured by X-ray crystallography, and the molar volume of the substance. Crystals of silicon are used, as they are available in high quality and purity by the technology developed for the semiconductor industry. The unit cell volume is calculated from the spacing between two crystal planes referred to as d₂₂₀. The molar volume V_m(Si) requires a knowledge of the density of the crystal and the atomic weight of the silicon used. The Planck constant is given by

${\displaystyle h={\frac {M_{\rm {u}}A_{\rm {r}}({\rm {e}})c_{0}\alpha ^{2}}{R_{\infty }}}{\frac {{\sqrt {2}}\ d_{220}^{3}}{V_{\rm {m}}({\rm {Si}})}}.}$

The experimental measurement of the Planck constant in the Large Hadron Collider laboratory was carried out in 2011. The study called PCC using a giant particle accelerator helped to better understand the relationships between the Planck constant and measuring distances in space.