Public policy of the United States

The United States Capitol.

The primary method of developing public policy is through the legislative process outlined in Article One of the United States Constitution. Members of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives propose and vote on bills that describe changes to the law of the United States. These bills may be created on the initiative of the legislator, or they may take up causes proposed by their constituents. The President of the United States may also suggest legislative policy goals through executive communication, which can then be taken up by members of Congress. Once a bill is introduced by a member of Congress, it is assigned to one or more congressional committees dedicated to that area of policy. The committee evaluates, amends, and sets public hearings for the bill before deciding whether to report favorably on the bill and have Congress vote on it. Once both chambers of Congress vote in favor of a bill, the president may sign it to make it law.[1]

Congress can also develop policy through resolutions, which declare the intent of Congress. Resolutions may be used to amend pending bills, modify Congressional procedure, or to make an official statement. Other ways that Congress can develop public policy include the budgeting process undertaken by the House of Representatives and the power of advice and consent granted to the Senate.[1]

The executive branch of the United States is responsible for enacting and enforcing the policy created by the legislative branch. It also plays a role in the legislative process, as the president plays a role in advocating policies and often has the final say as to whether a bill is vetoed. The Constitution gives the president powers regarding foreign policy and military policy, though these are subject to Congressional oversight.

There are three ways that a president can unilaterally influence policy. An executive order is an instruction given to government agencies and government employees, and these orders have the force of law so long as they comply with the powers granted to the president under the law. A presidential proclamation is an official statement made by the president, and while these do not have force of law, they may announce the use of presidential powers. A presidential memorandum is an informal statement made by the president.[2]

The agricultural policy of the United States is the governing policy for agriculture in the United States and is composed primarily of the periodically renewed federal U.S. farm bills.

In "A New Agricultural Policy for the United States," authors Dennis Keeney and Long Kemp summarize the agricultural policy of the United States as follows: "Because of its unique geography, weather, history and policies, the United States has an agriculture that has been dominated by production of commodity crops for use in animal, industrial and export enterprises. Over time agricultural policies evolved to support an industrialized, commodity-based agriculture. This evolution resulted in farmers leaving the land with agriculture moving to an industrial structure."[3]

The cultural policy of the United States funds and preserves American arts and heritage. The United States does not have a comprehensive cultural policy, and cultural aspects are typically governed by the states.[4] The Constitution grants Congress the power to regulate American copyright law,[5] and the arts are supported through the National Endowment for the Arts.[6] American heritage sites, such as parks and historic places, are protected by the National Park Service in the Department of the Interior.[7] Heritage sites of Native American tribes are overseen by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[8] The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs in the Department of State runs cultural exchange programs with other countries.[9] The Institute of Museum and Library Services oversees federal museum and library policy, including the distribution of grants and facilitation of research.[10] The National Endowment for the Humanities is also responsible for supporting museums and libraries financially.[11] The United States does not govern sports at the federal level,[12] though college athletics are subject to federal education laws.[13]

The drug policy of the United States encompasses the regulation of drugs in the United States and eradication of the illegal drug trade. Since 1971, American drug policy has constituted the war on drugs. The framework of American drug policy was established by the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, which regulates the production of drugs in the United States and establishes the classes of illicit drugs. Prior to the war on drugs, American drug policy included completely unregulated drugs in the 19th century and a total prohibition on alcohol between 1920 and 1933.[14][15]

Executive drug policy is coordinated by the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). The ONDCP's stated objectives include combating substance use disorder, organizing the National Drug Control Budget, and providing support to law enforcement agencies in combating drug trafficking.[16] The Food and Drug Administration is responsible for regulating consumer and prescription drugs while the Drug Enforcement Administration is responsible for combating the illegal drug trade.

Congress does not have direct authority over education, and education policy is primarily set by state and local governments.[21] Federal education policy is built around federal funding; the federal government allocates funding for schools, but they must comply with federal regulations to receive it.[22] The Department of Education is responsible for carrying out the federal education policy of the United States. The earliest federal education policy involved the establishment of schools in federally controlled territory in the 18th century.[21] By the mid-20th century, the federal government had begun providing federal funding for schools.[23]

Elementary and secondary education in the United States is governed by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). This act authorizes the Title I program to provide federal funding for public schools in the United States in order to support underprivileged communities.[24] Several acts have reauthorized and modified the ESEA, including the Improving America's Schools Act of 1994, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, and the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015. Schools that receive federal funding are also subject to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which provides protections for students with disabilities.

The foreign policy of the United States governs how the American government interacts with the governments of other countries. The president has the power to engage in executive agreements and may negotiate treaties to be ratified by Congress. The Department of State carries out diplomatic activity and the Department of Defense carries out military activity. The Central Intelligence Agency is the foreign intelligence service of the United States. The United States is a member of several international organizations, including the United Nations, NATO, and the Group of Seven, and the World Trade Organization. The United States recognizes all members of the United Nations, and maintains foreign relations with most of them.

American defense policy prioritizes the use of mutually-beneficial alliances to deter attacks against the United States and its allies. As of 2022, the Department of Defense recognizes China as the greatest threat to this cause. The United States also considers Russia, North Korea, Iran, and violent extremist organizations to be major foreign threats. Climate change and pandemics have been recognized as major intangible threats to American security.[25]

During much of the 19th century, American foreign policy was dictated by the Monroe Doctrine, which held Latin America to be the sphere of influence of the United States. Following World War I, President Woodrow Wilson moved away from isolationism toward interventionist Wilsonianism. During the Cold War, American foreign policy focused on combating the spread of Communism. Following the September 11 attacks, the war on terror directed American foreign policy.

The immigration policy in the United States is set by the United States Congress. The Constitution enumerates the power to regulate naturalization, and the Supreme Court has ruled that the foreign policy powers of Congress extend to immigration regulations.[26] Under the Homeland Security Act of 2002, immigration policy is carried out by the Department of Homeland Security. Customs and Border Protection is responsible for border control, the Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for enforcement of laws against illegal immigration., and the Citizenship and Immigration Services is responsible for processing legal immigration and naturalization.[27]

Naturalization and immigration were historically regulated by a series of Naturalization Acts and Immigration Acts. The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868, granting birthright citizenship through the Citizenship Clause. The immigration policy of the 19th century was one of open borders, but naturalization was restricted on the basis of race.[28] The Chinese Exclusion Act implemented a ban on immigrants from China in 1882. A quota system was implemented by the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 to limit immigration from different countries. Immigration and naturalization policy was reformed by the Immigration and Nationality Acts of 1952 and 1965. The Refugee Act of 1980 established American asylum policy. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 reformed how the United States addresses illegal immigration.

The Constitution authorizes Congress to develop infrastructure under its authority over interstate commerce and national defense.[30] Early infrastructure policy focused on internal improvements to construct methods of interstate transportation, such as roads and canals.[31] Telecommunications policy is governed by the Communications Act of 1934 and the Telecommunications Act of 1996, and it is overseen by the Federal Communications Commission.

The science policy of the United States directs funding for scientific research and incentivizes research in specific areas. Science policy has direct implications for other fields, including defense policy, energy policy, and health policy. In 2015, $135 billion were allocated to research and development, with nearly half of these funds going to the Department of Defense.[39] Dozens of federal agencies exist for the purposes of research and development. The Office of Science and Technology Policy is responsible for informing the president on scientific issues.