Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carrier

Initial Ministry of Defence (MoD) design studies for what was then the Invincible class replacement were conducted in the mid-1990s.[21] Options considered at this early stage included the possibilities of lengthening the hulls and extending the life of the existing Invincible class ships, converting commercial ships to carriers, and the construction of purpose-built new aircraft carriers.[21][22]

On 25 January 1999, six companies were invited to tender for the assessment phase of the project – Boeing, British Aerospace (BAe), Lockheed Martin, Marconi Electronic Systems, Raytheon and Thomson-CSF.[23] On 23 November 1999, the MoD awarded detailed assessment studies to two consortia, one led by BAe (renamed BAE Systems on 30 November 1999) and one led by Thomson-CSF (renamed Thales Group in 2000). The brief required up to six designs from each consortium with air-groups of thirty to forty Future Joint Combat Aircraft (FJCA). The contracts were split into phases; the first £5.9 million phase was for design assessment which would form part of the aircraft selection, while the second £23.5 million phase involved "risk reduction on the preferred carrier design option".[24]

In 2005 BMT announced it has tested 4 different CVF hull form models and assessed them for propulsion efficiency, maneuverability, seakeeping and noise signatures. It also investigated skeg length, rudder size, transom stern flaps and bulbous bow designs. The basic Delta concept went through many further iterations and development before the design was considered sufficiently mature by late 2006 for detailed cost estimates to be drawn up prior to ordering long-lead items.[25]

The vessels, described as "supercarriers" by the media, legislators and sometimes by the Royal Navy,[26] displace approximately 65,000 tonnes (64,000 long tons; 72,000 short tons)[3] each, almost three times the displacement of its predecessor, the Invincible class. They are the largest warships ever built in the United Kingdom.[27] The last large carriers proposed for the Royal Navy, the CVA-01 programme, were cancelled by the Labour government in the 1966 Defence White Paper.[28] In November 2004 First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Alan West explained that the sortie rate and interoperability with the United States Navy were factors in deciding on the size of the carriers and the composition of the carriers' air-wings:

The reason that we have arrived at what we have arrived at is because to do the initial strike package, that deep strike package, we have done really quite detailed calculations and we have come out with the figure of 36 joint strike fighters, and that is what has driven the size of it, and that is to be able to deliver the weight of effort that you need for these operations that we are planning in the future. That is the thing that has made us arrive at that size of deck and that size of ship, to enable that to happen. I think it is something like 75 sorties per day over the five-day period or something like that as well... I have talked with the CNO (Chief of Naval Operations) in America. He is very keen for us to get these because he sees us slotting in with his carrier groups. For example, in Afghanistan last year they had to call on the French to bail them out with their carrier. He really wants us to have these, but he wants us to have the same sort of clout as one of their carriers, which is this figure at 36. He would find that very useful, and really we would mix and match with that.

— Admiral Sir Alan West, evidence to the Select Committee on Defence, 24 November 2004[29]

On 17 January 2001, the UK signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the United States Department of Defense (DoD) for full participation in the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) programme, confirming the JSF as the FJCA.[30] This gave the UK input into aircraft design and the choice between the Lockheed Martin X-35 and Boeing X-32. On 26 October 2001, the DoD announced that Lockheed Martin had won the JSF contract.[31]

On 30 September 2002, the MoD announced that the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force would operate the STOVL F-35B variant and that the carriers would take the form of large, conventional carriers, initially adapted for STOVL operations. The carriers, expected to remain in service for fifty years, were designed for but not with catapults and arrestor wires. The carriers were thus planned to be "future proof", allowing them to operate a generation of CATOBAR aircraft beyond the F-35.[32] The contract specified that any conversion would use US C-13 steam catapults and Mark 7 Arresting gear as used by the American Nimitz-class carriers.[33] Four months later on 30 January 2003, the Defence Secretary, Geoff Hoon, announced that the Thales Group design had won the competition but that BAE Systems would operate as prime contractor.[32]

The Secretary of State for Defence announced the intention to proceed with the procurement of the carriers in July 2007.[34] The contracts were officially signed one year later on 3 July 2008, after the creation of BVT Surface Fleet through the merger of BAE Systems Surface Fleet Solutions and VT Group's VT Shipbuilding which was a requirement of the UK Government.[35]

On 19 October 2010, the government announced the results of its Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR). The review stated that only one carrier was certain to be commissioned; the fate of the other was left undecided. The second ship of the class could be placed in "extended readiness" to provide a continuous single carrier strike capability when the other was in refit or provide the option to regenerate more quickly to a two carrier strike ability. Alternatively, the second ship could be sold in "cooperation with a close ally to provide continuous carrier-strike capability".[36]

It was also announced that the operational carrier would have catapult and arrestor gear (CATOBAR) installed to accommodate the carrier variant of the F-35 rather than the short-take off and vertical-landing version.[37][38] It was decided to use the next-generation Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) catapult and Advanced Arresting Gear (AAG) instead of the more conventional systems which the design had originally been specified to be compatible with.[39]

The decision to convert Prince of Wales to CATOBAR was reviewed after the projected costs rose to around double the original estimate. On 10 May 2012, the Defence Secretary, Philip Hammond, announced in Parliament that the government had decided to revert to its predecessor's plans to purchase the F-35B rather than the F-35C, and to complete both aircraft carriers with ski-jumps in the STOVL configuration.[40] MoD sources indicated that the cost of installing EMALS and AAG on Prince of Wales would have risen to £2 billion, of which about £450 million of which was the cost of the equipment and the remainder the cost of installation.[39] The total cost of the work that had been done on the conversion to a CATOBAR configuration, and of reverting the design to the original STOVL configuration, was estimated by Philip Hammond to be "something in the order of £100 million".[41] In later testimony before a parliamentary committee, Bernard Gray, Chief of Defence Materiel, revealed that even though the carriers had been sold as adaptable and easy to convert for CATOBAR, no serious effort had been made in this direction since 2002.[42]

A model of a Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carrier in the Cabinet Room of 10 Downing Street on 16 July 2015.

On 23 November 2015, the government published its 2015 SDSR which confirmed its plans to bring into service both Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers, with one to be available at all times.[43] The review also confirmed that one of the carriers would have enhanced amphibious capabilities. The government also reaffirmed its commitment to ordering 138 F-35 Lightning IIs, although the specific variant(s) was not mentioned. The review stated that 24 of these aircraft would be available to the aircraft carriers by 2023.[43]

While the Queen Elizabeth-class carriers are closer in length to a Nimitz-class carrier (left), they are only about two-thirds the displacement. But they have three times the displacement of the Invincible-class ships they replace (right)

The ships' company is 679, rising to 1,600 when the air crew is added.[44] In April 2015 a parliamentary reply stated that the average crew size would be 672.[45] The ships have a displacement of 65,000 tonnes[3] on delivery, but the design allows for this to reach over 70,000 tonnes as the ships are upgraded through their lifetime.[46][47] They have an overall length of 280 metres (920 ft), a width at deck level of 70 metres (230 ft), a height of 56 metres (184 ft), a draught of 11 metres (36 ft), and a range of 10,000 nautical miles (12,000 mi; 19,000 km).[48] Nuclear propulsion was rejected due to its high cost and manpower required in favour of Integrated Electric Propulsion consisting of two Rolls-Royce Marine Trent MT30 36 MW (48,000 hp) gas turbine generator units and four Wärtsilä diesel generator sets (two 9 MW or 12,000 hp and two 11 MW or 15,000 hp).[49][46] The Trents and diesels are the largest ever supplied to the Royal Navy, and together they feed the low-voltage electrical systems as well as four GE Power Conversion's 20 MW electric propulsion motors that drive the twin fixed-pitch propellers.[50]

Instead of a single island superstructure containing both the ships' navigation bridges and flying control (flyco) centres, the ships have these operations divided between two structures, with the forward island for navigation and the aft island for controlling flying operations.[50] The primary reason for having twin islands was to space out the funnels, as the ships were designed with redundancy with "duplicated main and secondary machinery in two complexes with independent uptakes and downtakes in each of the two islands", while the alternative of consolidating all the exhaust trunkings would have reduced hangar space as well as increasing the vulnerability to flooding. Additional benefits include easier construction, reduced wind turbulence, and freed up deck space. Using two structures provides separate mountings for the air surveillance radar (forward), which does not interfere with the medium-range radar (aft); furthermore, visibility is improved for both navigation and landing operations.[51]

Under the flight deck are a further nine decks.[52] The hangar deck measures 155 by 33.5 metres (509 by 110 ft) with a height of 6.7 to 10 metres (22 to 33 ft), large enough to accommodate up to twenty fixed and rotary wing aircraft.[50] To transfer aircraft from the hangar to the flight deck, the ships have two large lifts, each of which is capable of lifting two F-35-sized aircraft, or one CH-47 Chinook from the hangar to the flight deck in sixty seconds.[53] The ships' only announced self-defence weapons are currently the Phalanx CIWS for airborne threats, with miniguns and 30 mm cannon to counter seaborne threats, which are fitted for but not with, and not carried as of 2021.[11]

The ship's radars will be the BAE Systems/Thales S1850M for long-range wide-area search,[54] the BAE Systems Artisan 3D Type 997 maritime medium-range active electronically scanned array radar, and a navigation radar.[55] BAE claims the S1850M has a fully automatic detection and track initiation that can track up to 1,000 air targets at a range of around 400 kilometres (250 mi).[56] Artisan can "track a target the size of a snooker ball over 20 kilometres (12 mi) away", with a maximum range of 200 km.[57] They will also be fitted with the Ultra Electronics Series 2500 Electro Optical System (EOS) and Glide Path Camera (GPC).[58]

Munitions and ammunition handling is accomplished using a Babcock designed highly mechanised weapons handling system (HMWHS).[59] This is the first naval application of a common land-based warehouse system. The HMWHS moves palletised munitions from the magazines and weapon preparation areas, along trackways and via several lifts, forward and aft or port and starboard. The tracks can carry a pallet to magazines, the hangar, weapons preparation areas, and the flight deck. In a change from normal procedures the magazines are unmanned, the movement of pallets is controlled from a central location, and manpower is only required when munitions are being initially stored or prepared for use. This system speeds up delivery and reduces the size of the crew by automation.[60]

Crew facilities include a cinema, five physical fitness areas (gyms),[61] a chapel[61] (with embarked naval chaplain),[62] and four galleys manned by sixty-seven catering staff. There are four large dining areas, the largest with the capacity to serve 960 meals in one hour. There are eleven medical staff for the eight-bed medical facility, which includes an operating theatre and a dental surgery.[44] There are 1,600 bunks in 470 cabins, including accommodation for a company of 250 Royal Marines with wide access routes up to the flight deck.[8]

Although the size of the Queen Elizabeth class would enable it to accommodate most current and projected carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft, the lack of arresting gear means that, as initially completed, it is only capable of operating either STOVL aircraft, such as F-35B Lightning, tiltrotors such as the Osprey, or aircraft that do not require either catapult-assisted take-off or arrested recovery.

F-35B of 617 Squadron takes off during Carrier Sea Training in 2020

With the retirement of the Harrier GR7 and GR9 in 2010, there remained no carrier-capable fixed-wing aircraft available to the Royal Navy or Royal Air Force.[67] Their replacement is the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.[68]

As originally intended, the ships carry the STOVL version, the F-35B. The aircraft are flown by pilots from the Fleet Air Arm and the Royal Air Force.[69]

For a period following the 2010 SDSR Review, the government had intended to purchase the F-35C carrier variant and modify one carrier to use the CATOBAR system to launch and recover these aircraft. This was because the cheaper F-35C variant has a greater range and can carry a larger and more diverse payload than the F-35B.[38][70] On 10 May 2012 the Defence Secretary Philip Hammond announced in Parliament that the government had decided to revert to its predecessor's plans to purchase the F-35B rather than the F-35C, and to abandon the completion of Prince of Wales in a CATOBAR configuration.[40] The reason given was that "conversion to 'cats and traps' will cost about double what was originally estimated – and would not be delivered until 2023 at the earliest". On 19 July 2012, Hammond indicated in a speech in the United States that the UK would order an initial 48 F-35B aircraft to be operated jointly by the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm.[71] In November 2015, the government announced its commitment to an order of 138 F-35 aircraft, with 24 available for carrier duties by 2023.[43] The 2021 defence white paper sharply reduced the envisaged total number of aircraft to be purchased to "beyond 48". Subsequently, the First Sea Lord indicated that the new envisaged number was to be 60 aircraft initially and "then maybe more", up to a maximum of around 80 to hopefully equip four "deployable squadrons".[72] In April 2022, the Deputy Chief of Defence Staff, Air Marshal Richard Knighton, told the House of Commons Defence Select Committee that the MoD was in discussions to purchase a second tranche of 26 F-35B fighters. Plans for frontline F-35B squadrons had been modified and now envisaged a total of three squadrons (rather than four) each deploying 12-16 aircraft. In surge conditions 24 F-35s might be deployed on a carrier but a routine deployment would likely involve 12 aircraft.[73]

Although the F-35B is fully capable of performing vertical landing, in a similar fashion to the way that the Harrier and Sea Harrier operated, this method of operation places limitations on the loads that the aircraft is capable of returning to the ship with. As a consequence, to avoid the costly disposal at sea of both fuel and munitions, the Royal Navy is developing the Shipborne rolling vertical landing (SRVL) technique for its operation of the Lightning II. SRVL is a hybrid landing technique that uses the Lightning's vectored thrust capability to slow its forward speed to around 70 knots to allow it to make a rolling landing, using its disc brakes, without the need of an arrestor wire.[74] A special type of metallic 'thermal paint' is being developed to withstand temperatures of up to 1,500 °C in the vicinity of jet nozzles.[75]

In December 2016, the British Government announced that it reached an agreement with the United States to allow the deployment of USMC F-35s from Queen Elizabeth upon the ship's entry into service, with a reciprocal arrangement seeing RAF and FAA aircraft operating from ships of the US Navy.[76]

The AgustaWestland AW101 is a medium-sized, three-engined, multi-role helicopter. Two versions are in service with the UK armed forces, where it is known as Merlin. The utility version can carry up to twenty-four troops seated or sixteen stretcher patients and the HM2 anti-submarine warfare variant has a dipping sonar and sonar-buoys, and a complete electronic warfare suite.[77]

Both versions use a common airframe. Their range and endurance using only a two engine cruise option is 750 nautical miles (1,390 km; 860 mi), or six hours. However, range can be extended further when the five underfloor fuel tanks are supplemented with auxiliary fuel tanks fitted in the cabin. Armament depends on the mission but includes anti-ship missiles, torpedoes, door-mounted machine guns, multi-purpose rocket, cannon pods, air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface missiles.[77] It was initially anticipated that at least 14 Merlin HM2s would be assigned to the carrier.[78] However, in practice with just 30 Merlin HM2s in service, it may be impossible to deploy 14 aircraft on a single operational carrier on a full-time basis.[79] During the 2021 carrier strike group deployment to the Pacific, for instance, considerably fewer than 14 Merlins were embarked with the task group.[80][81]

On 23 March 2015, the Royal Navy's first Wildcat HMA2 entered service.[82] The Wildcat can be equipped with several mission sensors, which can include: radar, active dipping sonar, electro-optical imaging, electronic surveillance measures and an integrated self-defence suite. The HM2 maritime version can be armed with air-to-surface missiles, torpedoes, depth charges, cannons and heavy machine guns. The aircraft has a maximum range of 520 nautical miles (960 km; 600 mi) and an endurance of four and a half hours.[83]

The 1982 Falklands War made clear the importance of airborne early warning and control and led to the development of the Sea King AEW2, which was succeeded by the Sea King ASaC7. This was scheduled to be retired in the second half of 2018[84] and planning for its replacement was identified at an early stage as an integral part of the next-generation aircraft carrier.[85] The programme became known as the "Future Organic Airborne Early Warning" (FOAEW), and contracts were placed with BAE / Northrop Grumman and Thales in April 2001.[86] In April 2002, BAE and Northrop Grumman received a follow-on study contract for Phase II of the project, by then renamed Maritime Airborne Surveillance and Control (MASC).[87] The MASC assessment phase began in September 2005 and by May 2006 three study contracts were awarded for MASC platform and mission systems options: one to Lockheed Martin UK for a Merlin helicopter fitted with AEW mission systems, another to AgustaWestland to maintain the present Sea King ASaC7 and finally to Thales UK to upgrade the Sea King's mission systems.[50]

The 2010 SDSR delayed the project which became a competition between Thales and Lockheed to supply Crowsnest, a bolt-on sensor package that can be carried by any Merlin HM2.[84] The Thales pod is based on the Sea King's Searchwater 2000; Lockheed had intended to use a derivative of the F-35's APG-81 radar but is now believed to be using an Elta system. Both systems were scheduled to begin flight trials in the summer of 2014[78] ahead of Main Gate in 2016. Ten pods were planned with IOC in 2019, but that was later changed to late-2021. Full operating capability is expected in May 2023.[88] A small force of Sea King ASaC.7 helicopters had been kept in service with 849 Naval Air Squadron after the final withdrawal of the remainder of the Royal Navy's Sea Kings,[84] but these aircraft were withdrawn from service in September 2018.[89] As part of the process of the system reaching initial operating capability, Crowsnest was declared operational on the first Merlin helicopters in March 2021.[90]

In March 2021, it emerged that the Royal Navy was considering fitting its Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers with electromagnetic catapults and arrestor cables to launch and recover non-STOVL aircraft. An MOD-issued Request for Information (RFI) specified a need for a system capable of launching a maximum weight of 24,948 kilograms (55,001 lb) and recovering a maximum weight of 21,319 kilograms (47,000 lb) for installation within three–five years.[91][92] Whilst these weight limits mean it is unable to launch and recover large conventional aircraft, like the F-35C, the system will be able to launch and recover unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs).[92] During the same month, it emerged that the Royal Navy was undertaking conceptual work on a carrier-borne UAV under Project Vixen.[93] The Royal Navy plans to operate these UAVs in strike, electronic warfare, air-to-air refueling and airborne early warning roles, replacing some helicopter-based platforms, including Merlin Crowsnest.[94]

• 
  F-35B Lightning II
• 
  A Merlin Mk2 flying alongside Queen Elizabeth
• 
  Wildcat HM2 operating over the English Channel
• 
  Apache and Chinook at sea on HMS Ocean
• 
  A Merlin HM2 Crowsnest

Queen Elizabeth during fitting-out, December 2014

The first steel cut for the project, in July 2009, signalled the start of construction of Lower Block 3 at BAE Systems Clyde, where production of Lower Block 4 started in January 2010.[104] Meanwhile, construction of the bow Lower Block 1 was carried out at Appledore, North Devon, and was completed in March 2010.[105]

On 25 January 2010, it was announced that the Cammell Laird shipyard has secured a £44 million contract to build the flight decks of the carriers.[106] That same day, construction began in Portsmouth of the 6,000-tonne Lower Block 2 for Queen Elizabeth.[107] On 16 August 2011, the 8,000-tonne Lower Block 03 of Queen Elizabeth left BAE Systems Surface Ships' Govan shipyard in Glasgow on a large ocean-going barge. Travelling 600 miles (970 km) around the northern coast of Scotland, the block arrived at Rosyth on the evening of 20 August 2011.[108] Her forward island was built at BAE Portsmouth and attached on 14 March 2013; the aft island was attached in June 2013 and the ski jump in November 2013.[8]

Queen Elizabeth was christened on 4 July 2014,[8] and floated-out on 17 July 2014.[109] On 26 June 2017, the new carrier left Rosyth for the first time to commence sea trials. Flight trials with helicopters began in July 2017 and F-35B flight trials are expected towards the end of 2018.[109] Initial operational capability was declared on 4 January 2021.[110]

Prince of Wales is marshalled out of the basin at Rosyth for the first time, September 2019

The 2010 SDSR declared that the UK needed only one aircraft carrier; however, penalty clauses in the contract meant that cancelling the second vessel would be more expensive than actually building it. The SDSR, therefore, directed that the second aircraft carrier, Prince of Wales, should be built but upon completion be either mothballed or sold.[111] The SDSR also directed that the ship be converted to a CATOBAR configuration; however, the costs associated with the conversion escalated to £2bn, leading the government to reverse its decision and build the ship to the original STOVL configuration.[112] On 26 May 2011, Defence Secretary Liam Fox cut the first steel for Prince of Wales.[113] The Royal Navy's 2012/13 yearbook stated "both carriers are likely to be commissioned and may even be capable of operating together".[114] In 2014, the prime minister, David Cameron, announced that Prince of Wales would be brought into service.[115]

As of 20 April 2016, construction of Prince of Wales was announced to be 80% complete.[116] The ship was handed over to the Royal Navy on 10 December 2019 and is set for a full operational capability from 2023.[117][118]

Prince of Wales was scheduled to assume responsibility for the continuing carrier trials of the F-35B in 2019 when Queen Elizabeth enters dry-dock for her scheduled maintenance period.[119]

Prince of Wales as seen from Liverpool's Pier Head, February 2020.

Prince of Wales made her first visit to her affiliated city, Liverpool, from 28 February-3 March 2020. During her stay in the city, the ship welcomed thousands of civilians aboard. This was the first time either of the Queen Elizabeth-class carriers were made open to the general public.