Red meat

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking.[1][2] In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.[3][4] In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh).

Thinly sliced raw beef is red.
Roast beef is a darker color after being cooked.

Definition
Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
Name Myoglobin USDA category
Chicken breast0.005%[5]White meat[6]
Chicken thigh0.18 – 0.20%[5]Dark meat
Turkey thigh0.25 – 0.30%[5]Dark meat
Pork0.10 – 0.30%[5]Red meat[6]
Veal0.10 – 0.30%[5]Red meat[6]
Beef0.40 – 1.00%[5]Red meat[6]
Old beef1.50 – 2.00%[5]Red meat[6]
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat

Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse meat, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Poultry is white. Most cuts of pork are red, others are white.[7] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: viandes noires — "dark meats".)[4] Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat)[5] from chicken.[6] Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.[8][9]

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin).[10] Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.[11] Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.[12]

In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week.[13][14] In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.[13] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.[13]

Health effects
See also: Beef § Health concerns, and Meat § Health

Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.[15][16][17][18] These associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.[19]

A 2013 meta-analysis found a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer.[20] A 2016 literature review found that for the each additional 50g per day of processed meat consumed, the risk increased 4% for total prostate cancer, 8% for cancer mortality, 9% for breast cancer, 18% for colorectal cancer, 19% for pancreatic cancer, 13% for stroke, 24% for cardiovascular mortality and 32% for diabetes.[21] This is reflected by a 2021 umbrella review that sees an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[22]

Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."[23] Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."[19][24]

A 2011 meta-analysis concluded that "high intake of red and processed meat is associated with significant increased risk of colorectal, colon and rectal cancers", in line with a 2007 review by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute of Cancer Research.[25] Put in perspective, in the UK, 56 out of 1000 people who eat the lowest amount of processed meat will develop colorectal cancer (5.6%) while 66 out of 1000 high processed meat eaters will develop colorectal cancer (6.6%).[26]

A 2012 meta-analysis found an increased risk of gastric cancer associated with higher consumption of red or processed meat.[27] Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear.[19][28]

A 2019 meta-analysis concluded that the absolute effects of red and processed meat on cancer was "very small" and that the certainty of evidence was low, endorsing continued consumption of red and processed meat, contrary to prevailing dietary guidelines.[18][29] However, the paper was criticised for "flawed methodologies used to review and grade nutritional evidence", relying on a method not normally applicable to nutritional studies.[18][30]

Mechanisms

Nitrates and nitrites found in processed meat can be converted by the human body into nitrosamines that can be carcinogenic, causing mutation in the colorectal cell line, thereby causing tumorigenesis and eventually leading to cancer.[31] Processed meat is more carcinogenic compared to red meat because of the abundance of potent nitrosyl-heme molecules that form N-nitroso compounds.[32]

Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking

A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs).[32] Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.[33]

Cardiovascular disease and stroke
See also: Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease

Several studies have found a correlation between unprocessed red meat, and coronary heart disease (CHD) and certain types of stroke, while controlling for various confounding risk factors.[34] A study of 84,000 women, over a period of 26 years, found that those with the highest intake of unprocessed red meat had a 13% increased risk of CHD.[34] A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed red meat, but not unprocessed red meat, was associated with a higher incidence of CHD and diabetes.[35] The review suggested that the "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."[35]

A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical research on stroke outcomes associated with meat consumption showed that total meat consumption, red meat consumption, and processed red meat consumption increased the risk of stroke by 18%, 11%, and 17%, respectively, while consuming white meat (chicken) reduced the risk of stroke by 13%.[36] Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.[36]

As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.[30][37][38] A 2021 review conducted by researchers at the University of Oxford of studies involving over 1.4 million people concluded that each 50g per day increase in the consumption of processed and unprocessed red meat increased the risk of coronary heart disease by 18% and 9%, respectively.[39][40]

Diabetes

Unprocessed red meat intake is tentatively associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, but the link is weaker and less certain than the link between processed red meat and diabetes.[41] Red meat consumption has been associated with higher fasting glucose and insulin concentrations, which are risk factors for type 2 diabetes.[42] Daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.[43] One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".[44]

References
  1. "Red Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  2. "White Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  3. Reinagel M (2 January 2013). "Color Confusion: Identifying Red Meat and White Meat". Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
  4. Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  5. Penner KP, Clarke MP (September 1990). "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet". Iowa State Animal Science. Archived from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  6. "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  7. Larousse Gastronomique, 1961, s.v. pork
  8. Dougherty PH (15 January 1987). "Dressing Pork for Success". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  9. Hall T (13 November 1991). "And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  10. "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet" (PDF). Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. September 1990. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2006.
  11. Williams PG (September 2007). "Nutritional composition of red meat". University of Wollongong. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011.
  12. Schmid A, Walther B (July 2013). "Natural vitamin D content in animal products". Advances in Nutrition. 4 (4): 453–62. doi:10.3945/an.113.003780. PMC 3941824. PMID 23858093.
  13. "Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat". Harvard School of Public Health. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009.
  14. "MyPlate Protein foods". USDA. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
  15. Abete, Itziar; Romaguera, Dora; Vieira, Ana Rita; Munain, Adolfo Lopez de; Norat, Teresa (September 2014). "Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies". British Journal of Nutrition. 112 (5): 762–775. doi:10.1017/S000711451400124X. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 24932617. S2CID 14401281.
  16. Neuenschwander, Manuela; Ballon, Aurélie; Weber, Katharina S.; Norat, Teresa; Aune, Dagfinn; Schwingshackl, Lukas; Schlesinger, Sabrina (3 July 2019). "Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies". BMJ. 366: l2368. doi:10.1136/bmj.l2368. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 6607211. PMID 31270064.
  17. Mozaffarian, Dariush (12 January 2016). "Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity". Circulation. 133 (2): 187–225. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585. PMC 4814348. PMID 26746178.
  18. Qian, Frank; Riddle, Matthew C.; Wylie-Rosett, Judith; Hu, Frank B. (2020). "Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence?". Diabetes Care. 43 (2): 265–271. doi:10.2337/dci19-0063. PMC 6971786. PMID 31959642.
  19. International Agency for Research on Cancer (26 October 2015), IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 10 November 2015
  20. Rohrmann S, Overvad K, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Jakobsen MU, Egeberg R, Tjønneland A, et al. (March 2013). "Meat consumption and mortality—results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". BMC Medicine. 11 (1): 63. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-63. PMC 3599112. PMID 23497300. The results of our analysis support a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer.
  21. Wolk A (February 2017). "Potential health hazards of eating red meat". Journal of Internal Medicine. 281 (2): 106–122. doi:10.1111/joim.12543. PMID 27597529. S2CID 24130100.
  22. Huang, Yin; Cao, Dehong; Chen, Zeyu; Chen, Bo; Li, Jin; Guo, Jianbing; Dong, Qiang; Liu, Liangren; Wei, Qiang (15 September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chemistry. 356: 129697. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697. ISSN 0308-8146. PMID 33838606.
  23. "Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". World Health Organization. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
  24. "Press release: IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat" (PDF). International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  25. Chan DS, Lau R, Aune D, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, Norat T (6 June 2011). "Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies". PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e20456. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...620456C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020456. PMC 3108955. PMID 21674008.
  26. "Processed meat and cancer – what you need to know". Cancer Research UK - Science blog. 26 October 2015. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  27. Zhu H, Yang X, Zhang C, Zhu C, Tao G, Zhao L, et al. (2013). "Red and processed meat intake is associated with higher gastric cancer risk: a meta-analysis of epidemiological observational studies". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e70955. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...870955Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070955. PMC 3743884. PMID 23967140.
  28. Bouvard V, Loomis D, Guyton KZ, Grosse Y, Ghissassi FE, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, et al. (December 2015). "Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat" (PDF). The Lancet. Oncology. 16 (16): 1599–600. doi:10.1016/s1470-2045(15)00444-1. PMID 26514947.
  29. Han, Mi Ah; Zeraatkar, Dena; Guyatt, Gordon H.; Vernooij, Robin W.M.; El Dib, Regina; Zhang, Ying; Algarni, Abdullah; Leung, Gareth; Storman, Dawid; Valli, Claudia; Rabassa, Montserrat; Rehman, Nadia; Parvizian, Michael K.; Zworth, Max; Bartoszko, Jessica J.; Lopes, Luciane Cruz; Sit, Daegan; Bala, Malgorzata M.; Alonso-Coello, Pablo; Johnston, Bradley C. (2019). "Reduction of Red and Processed Meat Intake and Cancer Mortality and Incidence". Annals of Internal Medicine. 171 (10): 711–720. doi:10.7326/M19-0699. PMID 31569214. S2CID 203619188.
  30. "What's the beef with red meat?". Harvard Health. 1 February 2020.
  31. Santarelli RL, Pierre F, Corpet DE (2008). "Processed meat and colorectal cancer: a review of epidemiologic and experimental evidence". Nutrition and Cancer. 60 (2): 131–44. doi:10.1080/01635580701684872. PMC 2661797. PMID 18444144.
  32. Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V (April 2017). "A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis". Journal of Gastroenterology. 52 (4): 407–418. doi:10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x. PMID 27913919. S2CID 20865644.
  33. "Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk". National Cancer Institute. 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011.
  34. Leung TH (2012). "Red Meat Consumption: The Good and the Bad" (PDF). Non-Communicable Diseases Watch. 5: 1–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 December 2015.
  35. Micha R, Wallace SK, Mozaffarian D (June 2010). "Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Circulation. 121 (21): 2271–83. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977. PMC 2885952. PMID 20479151.
  36. Kim K, Hyeon J, Lee SA, Kwon SO, Lee H, Keum N, et al. (August 2017). "Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Journal of the American Heart Association. 6 (9): e005983. doi:10.1161/jaha.117.005983. PMC 5634267. PMID 28855166.
  37. Al-Shaar, Laila; Satija, Ambika; Wang, Dong D.; Rimm, Eric B.; Smith-Warner, Stephanie A.; Stampfer, Meir J.; Hu, Frank B.; Willett, Walter C. (2 December 2020). "Red meat intake and risk of coronary heart disease among US men: prospective cohort study". BMJ. 371: m4141. doi:10.1136/bmj.m4141. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 8030119. PMID 33268459.
  38. "Increasing red meat consumption linked with higher risk of premature death". Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. 13 June 2019.
  39. "Red and processed meat linked to increased risk of heart disease, Oxford study shows". University of Oxford. 21 July 2021.
  40. Papier, Keren; Knuppel, Anika; Syam, Nandana; Jebb, Susan A; Key, Tim J (2021). "Meat consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition: 1–12. doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575. PMID 34284672.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  41. Micha R, Michas G, Mozaffarian D (December 2012). "Unprocessed red and processed meats and risk of coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes—an updated review of the evidence". Current Atherosclerosis Reports. 14 (6): 515–24. doi:10.1007/s11883-012-0282-8. PMC 3483430. PMID 23001745.
  42. Fretts AM, Follis JL, Nettleton JA, Lemaitre RN, Ngwa JS, Wojczynski MK, et al. (November 2015). "Consumption of meat is associated with higher fasting glucose and insulin concentrations regardless of glucose and insulin genetic risk scores: a meta-analysis of 50,345 Caucasians". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 102 (5): 1266–78. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.101238. PMC 4625584. PMID 26354543.
  43. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, et al. (May 2017). "Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 32 (5): 363–375. doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y. PMC 5506108. PMID 28397016.
  44. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB (October 2011). "Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 94 (4): 1088–96. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. PMC 3173026. PMID 21831992.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.