Common bottlenose dolphin

The common bottlenose dolphin or Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is a wide-ranging marine mammal of the family Delphinidae. The common bottlenose dolphin is a very familiar dolphin due to the wide exposure it gets in captivity in marine parks and dolphinariums, and in movies and television programs.[5] It is the largest species of the beaked dolphins.[6] It inhabits temperate and tropical oceans throughout the world,[7] and is absent only from polar waters.[5][6][8][9][10] While formerly known simply as the bottlenose dolphin, this term is now applied to the genus Tursiops as a whole.[1][11][12] As considerable genetic variation has been described within this species, even between neighboring populations, many experts think additional species may be recognized.[4][11]

For the genus, see Bottlenose dolphin.

Common bottlenose dolphin[1]
Common bottlenose dolphin breaching in the bow wave of a boat
Size compared to an average human
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Delphinidae
Genus: Tursiops
Species:
T. truncatus
Binomial name
Tursiops truncatus
(Montagu, 1821)
Subspecies[4]
  • T. t. truncatus
  • T. t. ponticus
  • T. t gephyreus
Common bottlenose dolphin range (in blue)

Taxonomy

Until 1998, all bottlenose dolphins were considered one species T. truncatus. That year, the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (T. aduncus) was recognized as a separate species.[9][10][4][13][14][15] The two species are thought to have split during the mid-Pleistocene, about 1 million years ago.[16]

Currently, three common bottlenose dolphin subspecies are recognized:[17]

T. t. truncatus, the nominate subspecies
T. t. ponticus, or the Black Sea bottlenose dolphin
T. t. gephyreus, or Lahille’s bottlenose dolphin

Bottlenose dolphins along the southern California and Baja California coasts were previously recognized as the Pacific bottlenose dolphin, T. t. gillii.[18] The name has since been reclassified as a junior synonym of Tursiops truncatus.[19]

A 2020 study identified four distinct lineages within T. truncatus, each of which could be a distinct subspecies: a lineage native to the coastal regions of the western North Atlantic (off the coast of North America), an offshore lineage found worldwide in pelagic ecosystems, a lineage native to the Mediterranean, and a lineage restricted to the Black Sea (previously described as T. truncatus ponticus). The study noted only weak differentiation between the Black Sea and Mediterranean lineages, and found them to form a sister group to the offshore lineage, indicating that they likely descended from offshore bottlenoses that colonized the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The clade containing the offshore, Mediterranean, and Black Sea populations was sister to the western North Atlantic lineage, indicating deep divergence between the two.[16]

Description

Common bottlenose dolphins are grey, and between 2 and 4 m (6.6 and 13.1 ft) long, and weigh between 150 and 650 kg (330 and 1,430 lb).[13] Males are generally larger and heavier than females. In most parts of the world, adult length is between 2.5 and 3.5 m (8.2 and 11.5 ft); weight ranges between 200 and 500 kg (440 and 1,100 lb).[6][11] Dolphins have a short and well-defined snout that looks like an old-fashioned gin bottle, which is the source for their common name.[20]

The skull
The skeleton

Like all whales and dolphins, though, the snout is not a true nose; the nose instead evolved into the blowhole on the top of their heads. Their necks are more flexible than other dolphins' due to five of their seven vertebrae not being fused together like in other dolphins.[21]

Intelligence
The brain of common bottlenose dolphin (middle) that compared size to those of human (right) and wild boar (left)

The common bottlenose dolphin has a larger brain than humans.[22] Many investigations of bottlenose intelligence include tests of mimicry, use of artificial language, object categorization, and self-recognition.[23][24][25][26][27][28] This intelligence has driven considerable interaction with humans. The common bottlenose dolphin is popular in aquarium shows and television programs such as Flipper.[29] It has also been trained for military uses such as locating sea mines or detecting and marking enemy divers, as for example in the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program.[30][31] In some areas, they cooperate with local fishermen by driving fish toward the fishermen and eating the fish that escape the fishermen's nets.[32]

Ecology and behavior
K-Dog, trained by the US Navy to find mines and boobytraps underwater, leaping out of the water

As a very social species, the common bottlenose dolphin lives in groups called pods that typically number about 15 individuals, but group size varies from pairs of dolphins to over 100 or even occasionally over 1,000 animals for short periods of time.[11] The types of groups include: nursery groups, juvenile groups, and groups of adult males.[6]

Diet

Its diet consists mainly of eels, squid, shrimp and a wide variety of fishes.[1][8] It does not chew its food, instead swallowing it whole. Dolphin pods often work as a team to harvest schools of fish, though they also hunt individually. Dolphins search for prey primarily using echolocation, which is a form of sonar.

The diet of common bottlenose dolphin pods varies depending on area. Along the U.S. Atlantic coast, the main prey includes Atlantic croakers (Micropogonias undulatus), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) and American silver perch (Bairdiella chrysoura), while in South Africa, African massbankers (Trachurus delagoa), olive grunters (Pomadasys olivaceus), and pandora (Pagellus bellottii) are common bottlenose dolphin's typical prey.[6]

According to combined stomach content and stable isotope analyses in the Gulf of Cádiz, although European conger (Conger conger) and European hake (Merluccius merluccius) are most important prey of common bottlenose dolphins, mass-balance isotopic mixing model (MixSIAR), using δ13C and δ15N showns that Sparidae species; seabreams (Diplodus annularis and D. bellottii), rubberlip grunt (Plectorhinchus mediterraneus), and common pandora, (Pagellus erythrinus)) and a mixture of other species including European hake, mackerels (Scomber colias, S. japonicus and S. scombrus), European conger, red bandfish (Cepola macrophthalma) and European pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) are the assimilated diet.[33]

Research indicates that the type and range of fish in a dolphin's diet can have a significant impact on its health and metabolism.[34]

Communication

Dolphins also use sound for communication, including squeaks emitted from the blowhole, whistles emitted from nasal sacs below the blowhole, and sounds emitted through body language, such as leaping from the water and slapping their tails on the water. The dolphins address each other individually through matched whistling, where individuals respond to whistles of other dolphins by using the same whistle.[35]

Their heads contain an oily substance that both acts as an acoustic lens and protects the brain case. They emit clicking sounds and listen for the return echoes to determine the location and shape of nearby items, including potential prey.[36]

Reproduction
The immersion specimen of "Biskit", a three months fetus displayed at the Dolphin Discovery Centre in Bunbury, South West (Western Australia)

Mating behavior of bottlenose dolphin is polygamous. Although they can breed throughout the year, it mostly occurs in spring.[6] Males form alliances to seek an estrous female. For a chance to mate with the female, males separate the female from her home range.[6] Females bear a calf every three to six years.[6][37] After a year-long gestation period, females bear a single calf.[6] Newborn calves are between 0.8 and 1.4 m (2 ft 7 in and 4 ft 7 in) long and weigh between 15 and 30 kg (33 and 66 lb).[11] They can live as long as 40–50 years.[38] The calf suckling lasts between 18 and 20 months.[6] Sexual maturity varies by population, and ranges from 5–14 years of age;[38] sexual maturity occurs between 8 and 13 years for males and 5 to 10 years for females.[6]

Life expectancy

The average life expectancy of common bottlenose dolphins is about 17 years old,[39][40][41][42] but in captivity they have been known to live to up to 51 years old.[43]

Distribution

The common bottlenose dolphin can be found in temperate, subtropical, and tropical oceans around the world.[44] The global population has been estimated at 600,000.[45] Some bottlenose populations live closer to the shore (inshore populations) and others live further out to sea (offshore populations).[46] Generally, offshore populations are larger, darker, and have proportionally shorter fins and beaks. Offshore populations can migrate up to 4,200 km (2,600 mi) in a season, but inshore populations tend to move less. However, some inshore populations make long migrations in response to El Niño events.[11] The species has occurred as far as 50° north in eastern Pacific waters, possibly as a result of warm water events.[47] The coastal dolphins appear to adapt to warm, shallow waters. It has a smaller body and larger flippers, for maneuverability and heat dispersal. They can be found in harbors, bays, lagoons and estuaries. Offshore dolphins, however, are adapted to cooler, deeper waters. Certain qualities in their blood suggest they are more suited to deep diving. Their considerably larger body protects them against predators and helps them retain heat.[48]

Other human interactions
Five dolphins jumping in a show
The dolphin watching in the ocean at south of Cape May, New Jersey
Killed bottlenose dolphins on harbour in Skálabotnur, Faroe Islands, July 2022

Some interactions with humans are harmful to the dolphins. Dolphin hunting industry exists in multiple countries including Japan, where common bottlenose dolphins are hunted for food annually in the town of Taiji,[49] and the Faroe Islands. Also, dolphins are sometimes killed inadvertently as a bycatch of tuna fishing.[50][51]

Tião was a well-known solitary male bottlenose dolphin that was first spotted in the town of São Sebastião in Brazil around 1994 and frequently allowed humans to interact with him. The dolphin later became infamous for killing a swimmer and injuring many others, which earned it the nickname of killer dolphin.

Fungie is another solitary male bottlenose, living in close contact with humans in Dingle Harbour, Ireland, since 1983. He has become a symbol of the town, although some doubt exists over whether he is a single dolphin.[52]

Conservation

The North Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Sea populations of the common bottlenose dolphin are listed in Appendix II[53] to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) of the Bonn Convention, since they have an unfavorable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international cooperation organized by tailored agreements.[54]

The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning international trade (including in parts/derivatives) is regulated.[3]

Estimated population of a few specific areas are including:[9]

Area Population
Northern Gulf of Mexico 97,964
Eastern coast of North America 110,000
Eastern Tropical Pacific 243,500
Hawaiian Islands 3,215
Coastal of California 345
Japan 36,791
Eastern Sulu Sea 2,628
Western European continental shelf 12,600
Mediterranean Sea fewer than 10,000
Black Sea at least several thousand

The species is covered by the Agreement on Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS), the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region,[55] and the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia.[56]

Marine pollution

Common bottlenose dolphins are the most common apex predators found in coastal and estuarine ecosystems along the southern coast of the US,[57] thus serve as an important indicator species of bioaccumulation and health of the ecosystem.

It is believed that some diseases commonly found in dolphins are related to human behaviors, such as water pollution. Water pollution is linked to point and non-point source pollution. Point source pollution comes from a single source such as an oil spill[58] and/or chemical discharge from a specific facility. The environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused a direct impact and still serves as a long-term impact of future populations. Common bottlenose dolphins use these important habitats for calving, foraging, and feeding. Environmental impacts or changes from chemicals or marine pollution can alter and disrupt endocrine systems, affecting future populations. For example, oil spills have been related to lung and reproductive diseases in female dolphins. A recent study[59]suggested signs of lung disease and impaired stress in 32 dolphins that were captured and assessed in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, US. Out of these 32 dolphins, 10 were found pregnant and, upon a 47-month check up, only 20% produced feasible calves, compared to a previous success rate of 83%, in the same area. It is believed that a recent oil spill in this area is partially to blame for these severely low numbers.

Dense human development along the eastern coast of Florida and intense agricultural activity have resulted in increased freshwater inputs, changes in drainage patterns, and altered water quality (i.e. chemical contamination, high nutrient input, decreased salinity, decreased sea grass habitat, and eutrophication.[60] High nutrient input from agriculture chemicals and fertilizers causes eutrophication[61] and hypoxia, causing a severe reduction in water quality. Excess of phosphorus and nitrogen from these non-point sources deplete the natural cycle of oxygen by overconsumption of algae. Harmful algal blooms are responsible for dead zones and unusual mortality events of common bottlenose dolphins consuming these toxic fish from the brevetoxin produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis.[62] Brevetoxins are neurotoxins that can cause acute respiratory and neurological symptoms, including death, in marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, and fishes.[63]

See also

References
  1. Wells, R.; Scott, M. (2002). "Bottlenose Dolphins". In Perrin, W.; Wursig, B.; Thewissen, J. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 122–127. ISBN 978-0-12-551340-1.
  2. Wells, R.S.; Natoli, A.; Braulik, G. (2019) [errata version of 2019 assessment]. "Tursiops truncatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22563A156932432. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T22563A156932432.en. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  3. "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  4. Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). "Tursiops truncatus". Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  5. Leatherwood, S., & Reeves, R. (1990). The Bottlenose Dolphin. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., ISBN 0-12-440280-1
  6. Jenkins, J. (2009) Tursiops truncatus. Animal Diversity Web.
  7. Wilson, Ben; Hammond, Philip S.; Thompson, Paul M. (February 1999). "ESTIMATING SIZE AND ASSESSING TRENDS IN A COASTAL BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN POPULATION". Ecological Applications. 9 (1): 288–300. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(1999)009[0288:esaati]2.0.co;2. ISSN 1051-0761.
  8. Anonymous (2002). "Bottlenose Dolphin". Seaworld.org. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
  9. Wells, R.S.; Natoli, A.; Braulik, G. (2019). "Tursiops truncatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22563A50377908. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T22563A50377908.en.
  10. Klinowska, M. (1991). Dolphins, Porpoises and Whales of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book. Gland, Switzerland, U.K.: IUCN, ISBN 2880329361
  11. Shirihai, H.; Jarrett, B. (2006). Whales Dolphins and Other Marine Mammals of the World. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. pp. 155–158. ISBN 978-0-691-12757-6.
  12. Reeves, R.; Stewart, B.; Clapham, P.; Powell, J. (2002). National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: A.A. Knopf. pp. 362–365. ISBN 978-0-375-41141-0.
  13. American Cetacean Society Fact Sheet – Bottlenose Dolphin Archived 2008-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
  14. Wells, R.; Scott, M. (2002). "Bottlenose Dolphins". In Perrin, W.; Wursig, B.; Thewissen, J. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 122–127. ISBN 978-0-12-551340-1.
  15. Möller Luciana M.; Beheregaray Luciano B (2001). "Coastal bottlenose dolphins from southeastern Australia are Tursiops aduncus according to sequences of the mitochondrial DNA control region". Marine Mammal Science. 17 (2): 249–263. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb01269.x.
  16. Moura, Andre E.; Shreves, Kypher; Pilot, Małgorzata; Andrews, Kimberly R.; Moore, Daniel M.; Kishida, Takushi; Möller, Luciana; Natoli, Ada; Gaspari, Stefania; McGowen, Michael; Chen, Ing; Gray, Howard; Gore, Mauvis; Culloch, Ross M.; Kiani, Muhammad S.; Willson, Maia Sarrouf; Bulushi, Asma; Collins, Tim; Baldwin, Robert; Willson, Andrew; Minton, Gianna; Ponnampalam, Louisa; Hoelzel, A. Rus (2020-05-01). "Phylogenomics of the genus Tursiops and closely related Delphininae reveals extensive reticulation among lineages and provides inference about eco-evolutionary drivers". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 146: 106756. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2020.106756. hdl:2164/16438. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 32028032. S2CID 211048062.
  17. "List of Marine Mammal Species and Subspecies|May 1 2022". Society for Marine Mammalogy. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  18. Rice, DW (1998). Marine mammals of the world: Systematics and distribution. Society for Marine Mammalogy. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-891276-03-3.
  19. Integrated Taxonomic Information System. "Tursiops truncatus gillii Dall, 1873". Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  20. "Tursiops truncatus, Bottlenose Dolphin". MarineBio.org. Archived from the original on 6 April 2008. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
  21. Wells, R.S. (2006). American Cetacean Society Fact Sheet: Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Archived 2013-04-25 at the Wayback Machine
  22. Marino, Lori; Connor, Richard C.; Fordyce, R. Ewan; Herman, Louis M.; Hof, Patrick R.; Lefebvre, Louis; Lusseau, David; McCowan, Brenda; et al. (2007). "Cetaceans Have Complex Brains for Complex Cognition". PLOS Biology. 5 (5): e139. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050139. PMC 1868071. PMID 17503965.
  23. Reiss, Diana; McCowan, Brenda (September 1993). "Spontaneous Vocal Mimicry and Production by Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): Evidence for Vocal Learning". J Comp Psychol. 107 (3): 301–12. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.107.3.301. PMID 8375147.
  24. "The Dolphin Institute — Behavioral Mimicry". Archived from the original on 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  25. Herman, L. (2002). "Language Learning". In Perrin, W.; Wursig, B.; Thewissen, J. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 685–689. ISBN 978-0-12-551340-1.
  26. "The Dolphin Institute — Understanding Language". dolphin-institute.org. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11.
  27. "Intelligence and Humans". wiu.edu. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
  28. Marten, K.; Psarakos, S. (2006). "Evidence of Self-awareness in the Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)". In Parker, S. T.; Mitchell, R.; Boccia, M. (eds.). Self-awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–379. ISBN 978-0521025911. Archived from the original on 2008-10-13. Retrieved 2008-10-04.
  29. "American Cetacean Society — Bottlenose Dolphin". Archived from the original on 2008-07-25. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  30. "U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program Web Site". U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. Archived from the original on 2009-01-15.
  31. "Dolphins Deployed as Undersea Agents in Iraq". National Geographic. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
  32. "Bottlenose Dolphin". Archived from the original on 2008-04-21. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
  33. Giménez, Joan; Marçalo, Ana; Ramírez, Francisco; Verborgh, philippe; Pauline Gauffier, Pauline; Ruth, Esteban; Lídia, Nicolau; Enrique, González-Ortegón; Francisco, Baldó; César, Vilas; José, Vingada; Manuela G., Forero; Stephanis, Renaud de (2017). "Diet of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from the Gulf of Cadiz: Insights from stomach content and stable isotope analyses". PLOS ONE. 12 (9): e0184673. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184673. PMC 5595343. PMID 28898268.
  34. Venn-Watson, Stephanie; Baird, Mark; Novick, Brittany; Parry, Celeste; Jensen, Eric D. (2020). "Modified fish diet shifted serum metabolome and alleviated chronic anemia in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): Potential role of odd-chain saturated fatty acids". PLOS ONE. 15 (4): e0230769. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230769. PMC 7138614. PMID 32259832.
  35. Janik, Vincent M (2000-08-25). "Whistle matching in wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)" (PDF). Science . 289 (5483): 1355–1357. doi:10.1126/science.289.5483.1355. PMID 10958783. Retrieved 2022-10-05.
  36. Au, Whitlow (1993). The Sonar of Dolphins. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-97835-2.
  37. "Marine Mammals - Common Bottlenose Dolphin". oceana.org. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
  38. "Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) - Office of Protected Resources - NOAA Fisheries". Retrieved 16 September 2014.
  39. Hersh S.L., D.K. Odell, E. D. A. "Bottlenose dolphin mortality patterns in the Indian/Banana River system of Florida" in The bottlenose dolphin (ed. Leatherwood, S. and Reeves, R. S.) 155–164 (New York: Academic Press, 1990).
  40. Odell, D. K. Status and Aspects of the Life History of the Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus , in Florida. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 32, 1055–1058 (1975).
  41. Stolen, M. K. & Barlow, J. A MODEL LIFE TABLE FOR BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) FROM THE INDIAN RIVER LAGOON SYSTEM, FLORIDA, U.S.A. Mar. Mammal Sci. 19, 630–649 (2003).
  42. Martien, K. K. et al. Population structure of island-associated dolphins: Evidence from mitochondrial and microsatellite markers for common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) around the main Hawaiian Islands. Mar. Mammal Sci. 28, E208–E232 (2012).
  43. J. P. de Magalhães et al., The Human Ageing Genomic Resources: Online databases and tools for biogerontologists. Aging Cell. 8 (2009), pp. 65–72.
  44. Scott, M., & Chivers, S. (1990). "Distribution and Herd Structure of Bottlenose Dolphins in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean", pp. 387–402 in S. Leatherwood, & R. Reeves, The Bottlenose Dolphin, San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., ISBN 0-12-440280-1
  45. "Common Bottlenose Dolphin". WWF. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
  46. Fearnbach, H.; Durban, J.; Parsons, K.; Claridge, D. (July 2012). "Photographic mark–recapture analysis of local dynamics within an open population of dolphins". Ecological Applications. 22 (5): 1689–1700. doi:10.1890/12-0021.1. ISSN 1051-0761.
  47. Halpin, Luke R.; Towers, Jared R.; Ford, John K. B. (2018-04-20). "First record of common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) in Canadian Pacific waters". Marine Biodiversity Records. 11: 3. doi:10.1186/s41200-018-0138-1. ISSN 1755-2672.
  48. "Habitat & Distribution".
  49. "Frequently Asked Questions: Save Japan Dolphins Campaign". International Marine Mammal Project. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
  50. Kenyon, P. (2004-11-08). "Dining with the dolphin hunters". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-09-30.
  51. "The Dolphin Institute — Threats to the Bottlenose Dolphin and Other Marine Mammals". Archived from the original on 2008-12-09. Retrieved 2008-09-30.
  52. "Fungie wins title of longest living friendly dolphin". Independent.ie.
  53. "Appendix II" to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). As amended by the Conference of the Parties to the Bonn Convention in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2011 and 2014. Effective: 8 February 2015.
  54. "Convention on Migratory Species page on the common bottlenose dolphin". Retrieved 16 September 2014.
  55. "Pacific Cetaceans MoU". pacificcetaceans.org. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
  56. "Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU". cms.int. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
  57. Reif, John S.; Schaefer, Adam M.; Bossart, Gregory D.; Fair, Patricia A. (2017-07-24). "Health and Environmental Risk Assessment Project for bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus from the southeastern USA. II. Environmental aspects". Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 125 (2): 155–166. doi:10.3354/dao03143. ISSN 0177-5103. PMID 28737160.
  58. "Ocean pollution | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration". www.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
  59. Lane, Suzanne M.; Smith, Cynthia R.; Mitchell, Jason; Balmer, Brian C.; Barry, Kevin P.; McDonald, Trent; Mori, Chiharu S.; Rosel, Patricia E.; Rowles, Teresa K.; Speakman, Todd R.; Townsend, Forrest I.; Tumlin, Mandy C.; Wells, Randall S.; Zolman, Eric S.; Schwacke, Lori H. (2015). "Reproductive outcome and survival of common bottlenose dolphins sampled in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, USA, following the Deepwater Horizonoil spill". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1818): 20151944. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.1944. PMC 4650159. PMID 26538595.
  60. Sigua, Gilbert C.; Steward, Joel S.; Tweedale, Wendy A. (2000-02-01). "Water-Quality Monitoring and Biological Integrity Assessment in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida: Status, Trends, and Loadings (1988–1994)". Environmental Management. 25 (2): 199–209. doi:10.1007/s002679910016. ISSN 0364-152X. PMID 10594193. S2CID 43314922.
  61. "Eutrophication | USGS.gov". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
  62. Pierce, R. H.; Henry, M. S. (2008-10-01). "Harmful algal toxins of the Florida red tide (Karenia brevis): natural chemical stressors in South Florida coastal ecosystems". Ecotoxicology. 17 (7): 623–631. doi:10.1007/s10646-008-0241-x. ISSN 0963-9292. PMC 2683401. PMID 18758951.
  63. "Ecological Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Fish and Wildlife Communities Associated with Submerged Aquatic Vegetation" (PDF).
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.