Abdul Hamid II

Abdul Hamid worked with the Young Ottomans to realize some form of constitutional arrangement.[13] This new form in its theoretical space could help to realize a liberal transition with Islamic arguments. The Young Ottomans believed that the modern parliamentary system was a restatement of the practice of consultation, or shura, which had existed in early Islam.[14]

In December 1876, due to the 1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the then-ongoing war with Serbia and Montenegro and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the 1876 Bulgarian rebellion, Abdul Hamid promulgated the constitution and its parliament.[1] The commission to establish a new constitution was headed by Midhat Pasha, and the new constitution was passed by the cabinet on 6 December 1876, giving Abdul Hamid the right to exile anyone he deems a threat to the state and allowed for a bicameral legislature with appointments made by the sultan.[15]

The international Constantinople Conference[16][17] towards the end of 1876 was surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but European powers at the conference rejected the constitution as a significant change; they preferred the 1856 constitution (Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümâyûnu) or the 1839 Gülhane edict (Hatt-ı Şerif), but questioned whether there was need for a parliament to act as an official voice of the people.

In any event, like many other would-be reforms of the Ottoman Empire's change, it proved to be nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire.

Ottoman troops under Romanian attack at the Siege of Plevna (1877) in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)

Abdul Hamid's biggest fear, near dissolution, was realized with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies. Russian chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement by that time. The British Empire, though still fearing the Russian threat to the British presence in India, did not involve itself in the conflict because of public opinion against the Ottomans, following reports of Ottoman brutality in putting down the Bulgarian uprising. The Russian victory was quickly realized; the conflict ended in February 1878. The Treaty of San Stefano, signed at the end of the war, imposed harsh terms: the Ottoman Empire gave independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; it granted autonomy to Bulgaria; instituted reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and ceded parts of Dobrudzha to Romania and parts of Armenia to Russia, which was also paid an enormous indemnity. After the war with Russia, Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution in February 1878 and dismissed the parliament after its solitary meeting in March 1877. For the next three decades, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Abdulhamid from Yıldız Palace.[1]

As Russia could dominate the newly independent states, the country's influence in South-eastern Europe was greatly increased by the Treaty of San Stefano. Due to the insistence of the Great Powers (especially the United Kingdom), the treaty was later revised at the Congress of Berlin so as to reduce the great advantages acquired by Russia. In exchange of these favors, Cyprus was ceded to Britain in 1878. There were troubles in Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed. Abdul Hamid mishandled relations with Urabi Pasha, and as a result Britain gained de facto control over Egypt and Sudan by sending its troops in 1882 to establish control over the two provinces. Cyprus, Egypt, and Sudan remained ostensibly Ottoman provinces until 1914 when Britain officially annexed those territories in response to the Ottoman participation in World War I on the side of the Central Powers.

Şehzade (Prince) Abdul Hamid in 1868.

Abdul Hamid's distrust for the reformist admirals of the Ottoman Navy (whom he suspected of plotting against him and trying to bring back the 1876 constitution) and his subsequent decision to lock the Ottoman fleet (which ranked as the third largest fleet in the world during the reign of his predecessor Abdul Aziz) inside the Golden Horn caused the loss of Ottoman overseas territories and islands in North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea during and after his reign.[18]

Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to foreign control over the Ottoman national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, a large portion of the empire's revenues were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders.

The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia was another blow to the Empire. The creation of an independent and powerful Bulgaria was viewed as a serious threat to the Ottoman Empire. For many years Abdul Hamid had to deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize either Russian or German wishes. There were also key problems regarding the Albanian question resulting from the Albanian League of Prizren and with the Greek and Montenegrin frontiers where the European powers were determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into effect.

Crete was granted 'extended privileges', but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification with Greece. In early 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrow Ottoman rule on the island. This act was followed by war, in which the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece (see the Greco-Turkish War (1897)); however as a result of the Treaty of Constantinople, Crete was taken over en depot by the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. Prince George of Greece was appointed as ruler and Crete was effectively lost to the Ottoman Empire.[1] The ʿAmmiyya, a revolt in 1889–90 among Druze and other Syrians against excesses of the local sheikhs, similarly led to capitulation to the rebels' demands, as well as concessions to Belgian and French companies to provide Beirut and Damascus with a railroad between them.

Abdul Hamid II greeting people

Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer.[19] However, despite working with the reformist Young Ottomans while still a crown prince and appearing as a liberal leader, he became increasingly conservative immediately after taking the throne. In a process known as İstibdad, Abdul Hamid succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and he concentrated much of the Empire's administration into his own hands at Yıldız Palace. Default in the public funds, an empty treasury, the 1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the war with Serbia and Montenegro, the result of Russo-Turkish war and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the Abdul Hamid government in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion all contributed to his apprehension for enacting significant changes.[19]

His push for education resulted in the establishment of 18 professional schools, and in 1900, Darulfunun, now known as Istanbul University, was established.[1] He also created a large system of secondary, primary, and military schools throughout the empire.[1] 51 secondary schools were constructed in a 12-year period (1882–1894). As the goal of the educational reforms in the Hamidian era were to counter foreign influence, these secondary schools utilized European teaching techniques, yet instilled within students a strong sense of Ottoman identity and Islamic morality.[20]

Abdul Hamid also reorganized the Ministry of Justice and developed rail and telegraph systems.[1] The telegraph system expanded to incorporate the furthest parts of the Empire. Railways connected Constantinople and Vienna by 1883, and shortly afterward the Orient Express connected Paris to Constantinople. During his rule, railways within the Ottoman Empire expanded to connect Ottoman-controlled Europe and Anatolia with Constantinople as well. The increased ability to travel and communicate within the Ottoman Empire served to strengthen Constantinople's influence over the rest of the Empire.[20]

Abdul Hamid took tight measures for his security. The memory of the deposition of Abdul Aziz was on his mind and convinced him that a constitutional government was not a good idea. Because of this, information was tightly controlled and the press was tightly censored. A secret police (Umur-u Hafiye) and a network of informants was present throughout the empire, and many politicians of the Second Constitutional Era and the future Turkish Republic experienced arrest and exile. The curriculum of schools was subject to close inspection to prevent dissidence. Ironically, the schools that Abdul Hamid founded and tried to control became "breeding grounds of discontent" as students and teachers alike chafed at the clumsy restrictions of the censors.[21]

20 kuruş during the reign of Abdul Hamid II, dating 1878

Seal of Abdul Hamid II

Starting around 1890, Armenians began demanding the implementation of the reforms which were promised to them at the Berlin conference.[22] To prevent such measures, in 1890–91, Sultan Abdul Hamid gave semi-official status to the Kurdish bandits who were already actively mistreating the Armenians in the provinces. Made up of Kurds (as well as other ethnic groups such as Turcomans), and armed by the state, they came to be called the Hamidiye Alayları ("Hamidian Regiments").[23] The Hamidiye and Kurdish brigands were given free rein to attack Armenians, confiscating stores of grain, foodstuffs, and driving off livestock, and confident of escaping punishment as they were subject only to court-martial.[24] In the face of such violence, the Armenians established revolutionary organizations, namely the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchak; founded in Switzerland in 1887) and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (the ARF or Dashnaktsutiun, founded in 1890 in Tiflis).[25] Clashes ensued and unrest occurred in 1892 at Merzifon and in 1893 at Tokat. Abdul Hamid II did not hesitate to put down these revolts with harsh methods while using the local Muslims (in most cases Kurds) against the Armenians.[26] As a result of such violence, 300,000 Armenians were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. News of the Armenian massacres was widely reported in Europe and the United States and drew strong responses from foreign governments and humanitarian organizations alike.[27] Hence, Abdul Hamid II was referred to as the "Bloody Sultan" or "Red Sultan" in the West. On 21 July 1905, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation attempted to assassinate him with a car bombing during a public appearance, but the Sultan was delayed for a minute and the bomb went off too early, killing 26, wounding 58 (of which four died during their treatment in a hospital) and destroying 17 cars. This continued aggression, along with the handling of the Armenian desire for reforms, led to the western European powers taking a more hands-on approach with the Turks.[1]

Map of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Abdul Hamid II

Sultan Abdul Hamid II, after being approached by American minister to Turkey, Oscar Straus, sent a letter to the Moros of the Sulu Sultanate telling them not to resist American takeover and to cooperate with the Americans at the start of the Moro Rebellion. The Sulu Moros complied with the order.

John Hay, the American Secretary of State, asked Straus in 1898 to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to request that the Sultan (who was also Caliph) write a letter to the Moro Sulu Muslims of the Sulu Sultanate in the Philippines telling them to submit to American suzerainty and American military rule. The Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter, which was sent to Sulu via Mecca where two Sulu chiefs brought it home to Sulu, and it was successful, since the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."[28] The Ottoman Sultan used his position as caliph to order the Sulu Sultan not to resist and not fight the Americans when they became subject to American control.[29] President McKinley did not mention Turkey's role in the pacification of the Sulu Moros in his address to the first session of the Fifty-sixth Congress in December 1899, since the agreement with the Sultan of Sulu was not submitted to the Senate until 18 December.[30] Despite Sultan Abdul Hamid's "pan-Islamic" ideology, he readily acceded to a request by Straus for help in telling the Sulu Muslims to not resist America since he felt no need to cause hostilities between the West and Muslims.[31] Collaboration between the American military and Sulu sultanate was due to the Sulu Sultan being persuaded by the Ottoman Sultan.[32] John P. Finley wrote that:

After due consideration of these facts, the Sultan, as Caliph caused a message to be sent to the Mohammedans of the Philippine Islands forbidding them to enter into any hostilities against the Americans, inasmuch as no interference with their religion would be allowed under American rule. As the Moros have never asked more than that, it is not surprising, that they refused all overtures made, by Aguinaldo's agents, at the time of the Filipino insurrection. President McKinley sent a personal letter of thanks to Mr. Straus for the excellent work he had done, and said, its accomplishment had saved the United States at least twenty thousand troops in the field.[33][34]

Abdul Hamid in his position as Caliph was approached by the Americans to help them deal with Muslims during their war in the Philippines,[35] and the Muslim people of the area obeyed the order sent by Abdul Hamid to help the Americans.[36][37][38]

The Bates Treaty, which the Americans had signed with the Moro Sulu Sultanate and which guaranteed the Sultanate's autonomy in its internal affairs and governance, was then violated by the Americans, who then invaded Moroland,[39] causing the Moro Rebellion to break out in 1904 with war raging between the Americans and Moro Muslims and atrocities committed against Moro Muslim women and children, such as the Moro Crater Massacre.

Abdul Hamid II attempted to correspond with the Chinese Muslim troops in service of the Qing imperial army serving under General Dong Fuxiang; they were also known as the Kansu Braves

The Triple Entente – the United Kingdom, France and Russia – maintained strained relations with the Ottoman Empire. Abdul Hamid and his close advisors believed the Empire should be treated as an equal player by these great powers. In the Sultan's view, the Ottoman Empire was a European empire, distinct for having more Muslims than Christians.

Over time the hostile diplomatic attitudes shown from France (the occupation of Tunisia in 1881) and Great Britain (the 1882 establishment of de facto control in Egypt) caused Abdul Hamid to gravitate towards Germany.[1] Kaiser Wilhelm II was twice hosted by Abdul Hamid in Istanbul; first on 21 October 1889, and nine years later, on 5 October 1898. (Wilhelm II later visited Constantinople for a third time, on 15 October 1917, as a guest of Mehmed V). German officers (like Baron von der Goltz and Bodo-Borries von Ditfurth) were employed to oversee the organization of the Ottoman army.

German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. Additionally, the German Emperor was rumored in counseling Hamid II in his controversial decision to appoint his third son as his successor.[40] Germany's friendship was not altruistic; it had to be fostered with railway and loan concessions. In 1899, a significant German desire, the construction of a Berlin-Baghdad railway, was granted.[1]

Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany also requested the Sultan's help when having trouble with Chinese Muslim troops. During the Boxer Rebellion, the Chinese Muslim Kansu Braves fought against the German Army, routing them, along with the other Eight Nation Alliance forces. The Muslim Kansu Braves and Boxers defeated the Alliance forces led by the German Captain Guido von Usedom at the Battle of Langfang in the Seymour Expedition in 1900 and besieged the trapped Alliance forces during the Siege of the International Legations. It was only on the second attempt in the Gasalee Expedition, that the Alliance forces managed to get through to battle the Chinese Muslim troops at the Battle of Peking. Kaiser Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested that Abdul Hamid find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid agreed to the Kaiser's demands and sent Enver Pasha to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time.[41] Because the Ottomans did not want conflict against the European nations and because the Ottoman Empire was ingratiating itself to gain German assistance, an order imploring Chinese Muslims to avoid assisting the Boxers was issued by the Ottoman Khalifa and reprinted in Egyptian and Muslim Indian newspapers.[42]

Opening of the first Ottoman Parliament (Meclis-i Umumî), 1877.

Greek lithograph celebrating the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 and the restoration of the 1876 constitution in the Ottoman Empire

The national humiliation of the Macedonian conflict, together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.[43] The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), a Young Turks organization that was especially influential in the Rumelian army units undertook the Young Turk Revolution in the summer of 1908. Abdul Hamid, upon learning that the troops in Salonica were marching on Istanbul (23 July), at once capitulated. On 24 July an irade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1876; the next day, further irades abolished espionage and censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners.[43]

On 17 December, Abdul Hamid opened the Ottoman parliament with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been "temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."[43]

The new attitude of the sultan did not save himself from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude towards the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909 known as the 31 March Incident, when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative upheaval in some parts of the military in the capital overthrew Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha's government. With the Young Turks driven out of the capital, Abdul Hamid appointed ahmet Tevfik Pasha in his place, and once again suspended the Constitution and shuttered the parliament. However the Sultan was only in control of Constantinople while the Young Turks were still influential in the rest of the Army and provinces. The CUP appealed to Mahmud Shevket Pasha to restore the status quo, who organized an ad hoc formation known as the Action Army which marched on Constantinople. Şevket Pasha's Chief of Staff was captain Mustafa Kemal. The Action Army stopped by first in Aya Stefanos, and negotiated with the rival government established by deputies who escaped from the capital, led by Mehmed Talat. It was secretly decided there that Abdul Hamid had to be deposed. When the Action Army entered Istanbul, a Fatwa was issued condemning Abdul Hamid, and the parliament voted to dethrone him. On 27 April Abdul Hamid's half-brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as Sultan Mehmed V.[19]

The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists against the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province, known as the Adana massacre.[44]

Sultan Abdul Hamid II was a practitioner of traditional Islamic Sufism. He was influenced by Libyan Shadhili Madani Sheikh, Muhammad Zafir al-Madani whose lessons he would attend in disguise in Unkapani before he became Sultan. Abdul Hamid II asked Sheikh al-Madani to return to Istanbul after he ascended the throne. The sheik initiated Shadhili gatherings of remembrance (dhikr) in the newly commissioned Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque; on Thursday evenings he would accompany Sufi masters in reciting dhikr.[51] He also became a close religious and political confidant of the Sultan. In 1879, the Sultan excused the taxes of all of the Caliphate's Madani Sufi lodges (also known as zawiyas and tekkes). In 1888, he even established a Sufi lodge for the Madani order of Shadhili Sufism in Istanbul, which he commissioned as part of the Ertuğrul Tekke mosque. The relationship of the Sultan and the sheik lasted for thirty years until the latter's death in 1903.[54]

A sample of his handwritten poetry in Persian language and scripts, which was taken from the book My Father Abdul Hameed, written by his daughter Ayşe Sultan

Abdul Hamid wrote poetry, following on the footsteps of many other Ottoman sultans. One of his poems translates thus:

My Lord I know you are the Dear One (Al-Aziz)

... And no one but you are the Dear One
You are the One, and nothing else
My God take my hand in these hard times

My God be my helper in this critical hour

In the opinion of F. A. K. Yasamee:[55]

He was a striking amalgam of determination and timidity, of insight and fantasy, held together by immense practical caution and an instinct for the fundamentals of power. He was frequently underestimated. Judged on his record, he was a formidable domestic politician and an effective diplomat.[56]

Officially, Abdul Hamid II had only four legal wives and many additional concubines (of which eight were his favourites), but he is falsely ascribed as having twelve wives.[57][58][59][60]

His first marriage in 1863 was in the Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, where he married Nazikeda Kadın (c. 1850–1895). She was the daughter of Prince Arzakan Bey Tsanba and his wife Princess Esma Klıç.[60] She was Abdulhamid II's first wife, but was not his senior consort. Together, they had one daughter, Ulviye Sultan (1868–1875).

His second marriage was to Natukhai Bedrifelek Kadın.[60] Their three children include:

• Şehzade Mehmed Selim (1870–1937), married in 1886 to Eryale Hanım (1870–1904), daughter of Prince Ali Hasan Bey Marshania and his wife Princess Fatma Horecan Aredba, and had a son and a daughter. Married secondly to Eflakyar Hanım, daughter of Gazi Muhammed Bey, without issue. Married thirdly in 1905 to Nilüfer Hanım (1887–1943). Married fourthly in 1910 to his relative Pervin Dürrüyekta Hanım (1894–1969), daughter of Prince Kerzedzh Zekeriya Bey by his wife Şadiye Hanım. Married fifthly to Gülnaz Hanım, without issue. Married sixthly in 1918 to Dilistan Leman Hanım, without issue.
• Zekiye Sultan (1872–1950), married in 1889 to Ali Nureddin Pasha Bey (1867–1953) and had issue.
• Şehzade Ahmed Nuri (1878–1944), married in 1900 to Fahriye Zişan Hanım (1883–1940) and buried in the cemetery of the Sulaymaniyya Takiyya, Damascus), daughter of Ali Ilyas Bey, a Circassian lieutenant colonel in the Imperial Ottoman Army, without issue.

His third marriage was to Nurefsun Kadın (c. 1851–1908), which ended in divorce in 1881, and without issue. Nurefsun was a lady formerly in the household of Khedive Isma'il Pasha and Sultan Abdulaziz.[61]

His fourth marriage was in 1875 in the Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Kabardian Bidar Kadın (1858–1918), daughter of Prince Ibrahim Bey Talustan by his wife Princess Şahika İffet Hanım Lortkipanidze. Together, they had two children:

• Naime Sultan (1875–1945), married in 1898 and divorced in 1904 to Mehmed Kemaleddin Pasha Bey (1869–1920). Married secondly in 1907 to Mahmud Celaleddin (1874–1944), had issue.
• Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (1878–1944), Captain of the Ottoman Army, married in 1898 to Mislimelek Hanım. Married secondly to Sühendan Hanım (but divorced later). Married thirdly in 1907 to Mihriban Hanım (1890–1956) and had one son. Married fourthly in 1913 (divorced in 1934) to Hadice Macide Hanım (1899–1934), daughter of Mustafa Şerif Bey, Colonel in the Imperial Ottoman Army, and had one son. Married fifthly in 1916 to Meziyet Fatma Hanım (1902–1989), daughter of Mecid Bey, Colonel in the Imperial Ottoman Army, and had one son and two daughters. Married sixthly in 1924 to Irene Mer Hanım, and had one son.

His fifth marriage was in 1883 in the Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Dilpesend Kadın (1865–1903), the adoptive daughter of Tiryal Hanım, wife of Sultan Mahmud II, and had one daughter:

• Naile Sultan (1884–1957), married in 1905, to Arif Hikmet Pasha Germiyanoglu (1872–1942), sometime Senator and minister for justice, third son of Haji Abdurrahman Nureddin Pasha, sometime Grand Vizier, without issue.

His sixth marriage in 1885 in the Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Mezide Mestan Kadın (1869–1909)[60] and they had one son:

• Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (1885–1949), Captain of the Ottoman Army, Titular King of Albania in 1914. Married firstly in 1908 Hidayet Hanım, alias Nurbanu, née Emine Açba, daughter of Prince Mehmed Refik Bey Açba by his wife Princess Emine Mahşeref Hanım Emuhvari, and had a son. Married secondly in 1909 (divorced in 1919) to Aliyemelek Nazlıyar Hanım (1892–1976), daughter of Huseyin Bey, and had a son. Married thirdly in 1925 (divorced in 1925) to Georgina Leonora Barnard Mosselmans (1900–1969). Married fourthly in 1933 to Elsie Deming Jackson (1879–1952).

His seventh marriage was in 1885 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Emsalinur Kadın (1866–1950), daughter of Ömer Bey Kaya by his wife Selime Hanım, and had one daughter, Şadiye Sultan (1886–1977), who married in 1910, to Fahir Bey (1882–1922) had one daughter. Married secondly in 1931 to Reshad Halis (1885–1944) without issue.

His eighth marriage was in 1886 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Müşfika Kadın (1867–1961)[60] and had one daughter, Ayşe Sultan (1887–1960), married in 1921 to Mushir Mehmed Ali Rauf Nami Pashazade Bey (1877–1937).

His ninth marriage was in 1890 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Sazkar Hanım (1873–1945)[60] and had one daughter, Refia Sultan (1891–1938) who married in 1910 to Ali Fuad Bey, son of Ahmet Eyüb Pasha.

His tenth marriage was in 1893 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Peyveste Hanım (1873–1944) née Rabia Emuhvari, daughter of Prince Osman Bey Emuhvari by his wife Princess Hesna Hanım Çaabalurhva,[60] and had one son:

• Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri (1894–1952), married in 1919 (and divorced in 1923) to Emine Halim Hanım (1899–1979), daughter of Prince Mehmed Abbas Halim Pasha, by his wife Princess Fahrünnisa Hatice Hanım, second daughter of Mehmed Tewfik Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, and had one daughter. Married secondly to Misalruh Hanım, alias Mihrişah, née Feride, daughter of Mehmed Bey by his wife Emine Hanım, without issue.

His eleventh marriage was in 1896 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Fatma Pesend Hanım (1876–1924), née Fatma Kadriye Achba, daughter of Prince Ahmed Sami Achba, member of an Abkhazian princely family by his wife, Fatıma Hanım Mamleeva, and had one daughter, Hatice Sultan (1897–1898).

His twelfth marriage was in 1900 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Behice Hanım (1882–1969), née Behiye Maan, daughter of Albus Bey Maan an Abkhazian leader by his wife Nazli Hanım Kucba,[60] and had two sons:

• Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (1900–1945), married in 1919 to Ayşe Andelib Hanım, daughter of Hüsnü Paşa, Aide-de-camp to Sultan Abdul Hamid II, by his wife Kudsiye Hanım, without issue.
• Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin (1901–1903).

His thirteenth marriage was in 1904 in Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, where he married Saliha Naciye Hanım (1887–1923), alias Saliha, née Zeliha Ankuap, daughter of Arslan Bey Ankuap by his wife Canhız Hanım.[60] Saliha Naciye was the second favorite wife of Abdulhamid II, and was his second senior wife. They had two children:

• Şehzade Mehmed Abid (1905–1973), married firstly to Pınardil Fahriye Hanım, without issue. Married secondly in 1936 (divorced in 1949) to Princess Senije Zogu, sister to King Zog I, without issue.
• Samiye Sultan (1908–1909).

• Abdul Hamid II Biography
• All Documents about Abdul Hamid in English from a Turkish Web Site Archived 23 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Overy, Richard. The Times Complete History of the World, HarperCollins ISBN 9780007315697 (2010)