Abdullah I of Jordan

In 1910, Abdullah persuaded his father to stand, successfully, for Grand Sharif of Mecca, a post for which Hussein acquired British support. In the following year, he became deputy for Mecca in the parliament established by the Young Turks, acting as an intermediary between his father and the Ottoman government.[9] In 1914, Abdullah paid a clandestine visit to Cairo to meet Lord Kitchener to seek British support for his father's ambitions in Arabia.[10]

Abdullah maintained contact with the British throughout the First World War and in 1915 encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with Sir Henry McMahon, British high commissioner in Egypt, about Arab independence from Turkish rule. (see McMahon–Hussein Correspondence).[9] This correspondence in turn led to the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans.[3] During the Arab Revolt of 1916–18, Abdullah commanded the Arab Eastern Army.[10] Abdullah began his role in the Revolt by attacking the Ottoman garrison at Ta'if on 10 June 1916.[11] The garrison consisted of 3,000 men with ten 75-mm Krupp guns. Abdullah led a force of 5,000 tribesmen, but they did not have the weapons or discipline for a full attack. Instead, he laid siege to town. In July, he received reinforcements from Egypt in the form of howitzer batteries manned by Egyptian personnel. He then joined the siege of Medina commanding a force of 4,000 men based to the east and north-east of the town.[12] In early 1917, Abdullah ambushed an Ottoman convoy in the desert, and captured £20,000 worth of gold coins that were intended to bribe the Bedouin into loyalty to the Sultan.[13] In August 1917, Abdullah worked closely with the French Captain Muhammand Ould Ali Raho in sabotaging the Hejaz Railway.[14] Abdullah's relations with the British Captain T. E. Lawrence were not good, and as a result, Lawrence spent most of his time in the Hejaz serving with Abdullah's brother, Faisal, who commanded the Arab Northern Army.[10]

Abdullah arrives in Amman 1920

Abdullah 1920

Abdullah I of Transjordan during the visit to Turkey with Turkish President Mustafa Kemal 1937

When French forces captured Damascus after the Battle of Maysalun (24 July 1920) and expelled his brother Faisal (27 July–1 August 1920), Abdullah moved his forces from Hejaz into Transjordan with a view to liberating Damascus, where his brother had been proclaimed King in 1918.[9] Having heard of Abdullah's plans, Winston Churchill invited Abdullah to Cairo in 1921 for a famous "tea party", where he convinced Abdullah to stay put and not attack Britain's allies, the French. Churchill told Abdullah that French forces were superior to his and that the British did not want any trouble with the French. On 8 March 1920, Abdullah was proclaimed King of Iraq by the Iraqi Congress but he refused the position. After his refusal, his brother Faisal who had just been defeated in Syria, accepted the position. Abdullah headed to Transjordan and established an emirate there after being welcomed into the country by its inhabitants.[3]

Although Abdullah established a legislative council in 1928, its role remained advisory, leaving him to rule as an autocrat.[9] Prime Ministers under Abdullah formed 18 governments during the 23 years of the Emirate.

Abdullah set about the task of building Transjordan with the help of a reserve force headed by Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Peake, who was seconded from the Palestine police in 1921.[9] The force, renamed the Arab Legion in 1923, was led by John Bagot Glubb between 1930 and 1956.[9] During World War II, Abdullah was a faithful British ally, maintaining strict order within Transjordan, and helping to suppress a pro-Axis uprising in Iraq.[9] The Arab Legion assisted in the occupation of Iraq and Syria.[3]

Abdullah negotiated with Britain to gain independence. On 25 May 1946, the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan (renamed the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on 26 April 1949) was proclaimed independent. On the same day, Abdullah was crowned king in Amman.[3]

King Abdullah declaring the end of the British Mandate and the independence of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 25 May 1946.

Abdullah, alone among the Arab leaders of his generation, was considered a moderate by the West. It is possible that he might have been willing to sign a separate peace agreement with Israel, but for the Arab League's militant opposition. Because of his dream for a Greater Syria within the borders of what was then Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and the British Mandate for Palestine under a Hashemite dynasty with "a throne in Damascus," many Arab countries distrusted Abdullah and saw him as both "a threat to the independence of their countries and they also suspected him of being in cahoots with the enemy" and in return, Abdullah distrusted the leaders of other Arab countries.[15][16][17]

Abdullah supported the Peel Commission in 1937, which proposed that Palestine be split up into a small Jewish state (20 percent of the British Mandate for Palestine) and the remaining land be annexed into Transjordan. The Arabs within Palestine and the surrounding Arab countries objected to the Peel Commission while the Jews accepted it reluctantly.[18] Ultimately, the Peel Commission was not adopted. In 1947, when the UN supported partition of Palestine into one Jewish and one Arab state, Abdullah was the only Arab leader supporting the decision.[3]

In 1946–48, Abdullah actually supported partition in order that the Arab allocated areas of the British Mandate for Palestine could be annexed into Transjordan. Abdullah went so far as to have secret meetings with the Jewish Agency for Israel (Golda Meyerson, the future Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, was among the delegates to these meetings) that came to a mutually agreed upon partition plan independently of the United Nations in November 1947.[19] On 17 November 1947, in a secret meeting with Meir, Abdullah stated that he wished to annex all of the Arab parts as a minimum, and would prefer to annex all of Palestine.[20][21] This partition plan was supported by British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin who preferred to see Abdullah's territory increased at the expense of the Palestinians rather than risk the creation of a Palestinian state headed by the Mufti of Jerusalem Mohammad Amin al-Husayni.[9][22]

The claim has, however, been strongly disputed by Israeli historian Efraim Karsh. In an article in Middle East Quarterly, he alleged that "extensive quotations from the reports of all three Jewish participants [at the meetings] do not support Shlaim's account...the report of Ezra Danin and Eliahu Sasson on the Golda Meir meeting (the most important Israeli participant and the person who allegedly clinched the deal with Abdullah) is conspicuously missing from Shlaim's book, despite his awareness of its existence".[24] According to Karsh, the meetings in question concerned "an agreement based on the imminent U.N. Partition Resolution, [in Meir's words] "to maintain law and order until the UN could establish a government in that area"; namely, a short-lived law enforcement operation to implement the UN Partition Resolution, not obstruct it".[24]

Historian Graham Jevon discusses the Shlaim and Karsh interpretations of the critical meeting and accepts that there may not have been a "firm agreement" as posited by Shlaim while claiming it is clear that the parties openly discussed the possibility of a Hashemite-Zionist accommodation and further says it is "indisputable" that the Zionists confirmed that they were willing to accept Abdullah's intention.[25]

On 4 May 1948, Abdullah, as a part of the effort to seize as much of Palestine as possible, sent in the Arab Legion to attack the Israeli settlements in the Etzion Bloc.[20] Less than a week before the outbreak of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Abdullah met with Meir for one last time on 11 May 1948.[20] Abdullah told Meir, "Why are you in such a hurry to proclaim your state? Why don't you wait a few years? I will take over the whole country and you will be represented in my parliament. I will treat you very well and there will be no war".[20] Abdullah proposed to Meir the creation "of an autonomous Jewish canton within a Hashemite kingdom," but "Meir countered back that in November, they had agreed on a partition with Jewish statehood."[26] Depressed by the unavoidable war that would come between Jordan and the Yishuv, one Jewish Agency representative wrote, "[Abdullah] will not remain faithful to the 29 November [UN Partition] borders, but [he] will not attempt to conquer all of our state [either]."[27] Abdullah too found the coming war to be unfortunate, in part because he "preferred a Jewish state [as Transjordan's neighbour] to a Palestinian Arab state run by the mufti."[26]

King Abdullah welcomed by Palestinian Christians in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1948, the day after his forces took control over the city.

The Palestinian Arabs, the neighbouring Arab states, the promise of the expansion of territory and the goal to conquer Jerusalem finally pressured Abdullah into joining them in an "all-Arab military intervention" on 15 May 1948. He used the military intervention to restore his prestige in the Arab world, which had grown suspicious of his relatively good relationship with Western and Jewish leaders.[26][28] Abdullah was especially anxious to take Jerusalem as compensation for the loss of the guardianship of Mecca, which had traditionally been held by the Hashemites until Ibn Saud seized the Hejaz in 1925.[29] Abdullah's role in this war became substantial. He distrusted the leaders of the other Arab nations and thought they had weak military forces; the other Arabs distrusted Abdullah in return.[30][31] He saw himself as the "supreme commander of the Arab forces" and "persuaded the Arab League to appoint him" to this position.[32] His forces under their British commander Glubb Pasha did not approach the area set aside for the Jewish state, though they clashed with the Yishuv forces around Jerusalem, intended to be an international zone. According to Abdullah el-Tell it was the King's personal intervention that led to the Arab Legion entering the Old City against Glubb's wishes.

After conquering the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, at the end of the war, King Abdullah tried to suppress any trace of a Palestinian Arab national identity.[33] Abdullah annexed the conquered Palestinian territory and granted the Palestinian Arab residents in Jordan and Jordanian citizenship.[3][33] In 1949, Abdullah entered secret peace talks with Israel, including at least five with Moshe Dayan, the Military Governor of West Jerusalem and other senior Israelis.[34] News of the negotiations provoked a strong reaction from other Arab States and Abdullah agreed to discontinue the meetings in return for Arab acceptance of the West Bank's annexation into Jordan.[35]

Visiting the Dome of the Rock, 1948

King Abdullah, in white, leaving the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound a few weeks before his assassination, July 1951

King Abdullah with Glubb Pasha, the day before Abdullah's assassination, 19 July 1951

On 16 July 1951, Riad Bey Al Solh, a former Prime Minister of Lebanon, had been assassinated in Amman, where rumours were circulating that Lebanon and Jordan were discussing a joint separate peace with Israel.

96 hours later, on 20 July 1951, while visiting Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, Abdullah was shot dead by a Palestinian from the Husseini clan,[28] who had passed through apparently heavy security. Contemporary media reports attributed the assassination to a secret order based in Jerusalem known only as "the Jihad", discussed in the context of the Muslim Brotherhood.[36] Abdullah was in Jerusalem to give a eulogy at the funeral and for a prearranged meeting with Reuven Shiloah and Moshe Sasson.[37] He was shot while attending Friday prayers at Al-Aqsa Mosque in the company of his grandson, Prince Hussein.[38] The Palestinian gunman fired three fatal bullets into the King's head and chest. Prince Hussein was hit too but a medal that had been pinned to Hussein's chest at his grandfather's insistence deflected the bullet and saved his life.[39] Abdullah's assassination was said to have influenced Hussein not to enter peace talks with Israel in the aftermath of the Six-Day War in order to avoid a similar fate.[40]

The assassin, who was shot dead by the king's bodyguards, was a 21-year-old tailor's apprentice named Mustafa Shukri Ashu.[41][9] According to Alec Kirkbride, the British Resident in Amman, Ashu was a "former terrorist", recruited for the assassination by Zakariyya Ukah, a livestock dealer and butcher.[42]

Ashu was killed; the revolver used to kill the king was found on his body, as well as a talisman with "Kill, thou shalt be safe" written on it in Arabic. The son of a local coffee shop owner named Abdul Qadir Farhat identified the revolver as belonging to his father. On 11 August, the Prime Minister of Jordan announced that ten men would be tried in connection with the assassination. These suspects included Colonel Abdullah at-Tell, who had been Governor of Jerusalem, and several others including Musa Ahmad al-Ayubbi, a Jerusalem vegetable merchant who had fled to Egypt in the days following the assassination. General Abdul Qadir Pasha Al Jundi of the Arab Legion was to preside over the trial, which began on 18 August. Ayubbi and at-Tell, who had fled to Egypt, were tried and sentenced in absentia. Three of the suspects, including Musa Abdullah Husseini, were from the prominent Palestinian Husseini family, leading to speculation that the assassins were part of a mandate-era opposition group.[43]

The Jordanian prosecutor asserted that Colonel el-Tell, who had been living in Cairo since January 1950, had given instructions that the killer, made to act alone, be slain at once thereafter, to shield the instigators of the crime. Jerusalem sources added that Col. el-Tell had been in close contact with the former Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husayni, and his adherents in the Kingdom of Egypt and in the All-Palestine protectorate in Gaza. El-Tell and Husseini, and three co-conspirators from Jerusalem, were sentenced to death. On 6 September 1951, Musa Ali Husseini, 'Abid and Zakariyya Ukah, and Abd-el-Qadir Farhat were executed by hanging.[44]

Abdullah is buried at the Royal Court in Amman.[45] He was succeeded by his son Talal; however, since Talal was mentally ill, Talal's son Prince Hussein became the effective ruler as King Hussein at the age of seventeen. In 1967, el-Tell received a full pardon from King Hussein.

Abdullah married three times.

In 1904, Abdullah married his first wife, Musbah bint Nasser (1884 – 15 March 1961), at Stinia Palace, İstinye, Istanbul, Ottoman Empire. She was a daughter of Emir Nasser Pasha and his wife, Dilber Khanum. They had three children:

• Princess Haya (1907–1990). Married Abdul-Karim Ja'afar Zeid Dhaoui.
• King Talal (26 February 1909 – 7 July 1972).
• Princess Munira (1915–1987). Never married.

In 1913, Abdullah married his second wife, Suzdil Khanum (d. 16 August 1968), in Istanbul, Turkey. They had two children:

• Prince Nayef bin Abdullah (14 November 1914 – 12 October 1983; a colonel of the Royal Jordanian Land Force. Regent for his older half-brother, Talal, from 20 July to 3 September 1951). Married in Cairo or Amman on 7 October 1940 Princess Mihrimah Selcuk Sultan (11 November 1922 – March 2000, Amman, and buried in Istanbul on 2 April 2000), daughter of the Ottoman Turkish prince, Şehzade Mehmed Ziyaeddin (1873–1938) and his fifth wife, Neshemend Hanım (1905–1934), and paternal granddaughter of Mehmed V through his first wife.
• Princess Maqbula (6 February 1921 – 1 January 2001); married Hussein ibn Nasser, Prime Minister of Jordan (terms 1963–64, 1967).

In 1949, Abdullah married his third wife, Nahda bint Uman, a lady from Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in Amman. They had one child:

• Princess Naifeh (1950–); married Sameer Hilal Ashour.

• Francoist Spain: Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit (with white distinctive), (1949)[54]

• 
  Emir Abdullah of Transjordan with Sir Herbert Samuel and Emir Shakir ibn Zayid, Amman, 1921
• 
  The Emir with Sir Herbert Samuel (centre) and T. E. Lawrence (left), Amman Airfield, 1921r
• 
  The Emir at the Cairo Conference with T. E. Lawrence, Air Marshal Sir Geoffrey Salmond and Sir Wyndham Deedes, March 1921
• 
  The Emir with Sir Herbert Samuel and Mr. and Mrs. Winston Churchill at Government House reception in Jerusalem, 28 March 1921
• 
  King Abdullah bin Hussein of Jordan
• 
  Emir Abdullah at his Amman camp with John Whiting of the American Colony (businessman, photographer, intelligence officer) and staff, 1921
• 
• 
  Emir Abdullah with Arab notables during visit to Jaffa
• 
  Emir Abdulla with Arab Legion honour guard at Haifa port before boarding ship to Turkey
• 
  Herbert Samuel and King Faisal reviewing troops at Amman

• Alon, Yoav. The Shaykh of Shayks: Mithqal al-Fayiz and Tribal Leadership in Modern Jordan, Stanford Univ. Press, 2016.
• Bickerton, Ian J., and Carla L. Klausner. A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002.
• Corboz, Elvire (2015). Guardians of Shi'ism: Sacred Authority and Transnational Family Networks. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-9144-9.
• Dayan, Moshe (1976). Moshe Dayan: Story of My Life: An Autobiography. William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0-688-03076-9.
• Encyclopædia Britannica (Macropaedia) (2010). Abdullah. Vol. I (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica (online). "Abdullah I: Biography, History, & Assassination". britannica.com. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
• Haddad, Jurj Mari (1965). Revolutions and Military Rule in the Middle East: The Arab states pt. I: Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan. R. Speller. p. 488. ISBN 0831500603. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
• Hiro, Dilip (1996). "Abdullah ibn Hussein al Hashem". Dictionary of the Middle East. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 3–4.
• Jevon, Graham (2017). Glubb Pasha and the Arab Legion: Britain, Jordan and the End of Empire in the Middle East. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-83396-4.
• Karsh, Efraim (September 1996). "Historical Fictions". Middle East Quarterly. 3 (3): 55–60. Archived from the original on 7 February 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
• Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948. London: Osprey. ISBN 1472895185. No Google Books access.
  • see also the 2014 Bloomsbury Publishing edition, ISBN 9781472810014
• Karsh, Efraim (2003). Arafat's War: The Man and His Battle for Israeli Conquest. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 9780802141583. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
• Lunt, James (1990) [1989 (Macmillan)]. Hussein of Jordan. Fontana/Collins. pp. 7–8. See also W. Morrow 1989 edition, ISBN 0688064981, books.google.com/books?id=TYctAQAAIAAJ.
• Morris, Benny (2008). 1948: The History of the First Arab-Israeli War. New Haven: Yale University Press
• Murphy, David (2008). The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence sets Arabia ablaze. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1846033391.
• Oren, Michael (2003). Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East. New York: Ballantine. ISBN 0-345-46192-4 pp. 5, 7.
• Rogan, Eugene L.; Shaim, Avi (2001). The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948 (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press.

and The War for Palestine... (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-87598-1.

• • Shlaim, Avi. "Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948". pp. 79–103.
  • Rogan, Eugene L. "Jordan and 1948: the persistence of an official history". pp. 104–124.
  • Tripp, Charles. "Iraq and the 1948 War: mirror of Iraq's disorder". pp. 125–150.
  • Landis, Joshua. "Syria and the Palestine War: fighting King 'Abdullah's 'Greater Syria plan'". pp. 178–205.
• Rogan, Eugene (2012). The Arabs: A History. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465032488.
• Salibi, Kamal S. (15 December 1998). The Modern History of Jordan. I.B.Tauris. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-86064-331-6.
• Sela, Avraham, ed. (2002). The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. New York: Continuum.
  • Sela, "Abdallah Ibn Hussein". pp. 13–14.
  • "al-Husseini, Hajj (Muhammad) Amin". pp. 360–362.
• Shlaim, Avi (1988). Collusion across the Jordan: King Abdullah, the Zionist movement, and the partition of Palestine. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231068383. OCLC 876002691.
• Shlaim, Avi (1990). The Politics of Partition; King Abdullah, the Zionists and Palestine 1921–1951 . Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-07365-8.
• Shlaim, Avi (2007). Lion of Jordan; The life of King Hussein in War and Peace. Allen Lane ISBN 978-0-7139-9777-4
• Thornhill, Michael T. (2004). Abdullah ibn Hussein (1882–1951). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press; online edn, Jan 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
• Wilson, Mary Christina (1990). King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39987-4.

• Tell, Tariq Moraiwed (2013). The Social and Economic Origins of Monarchy in Jordan. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-10801-1. Retrieved 24 October 2021.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abdullah I of Jordan.

• A genealogical profile of him
• Newspaper clippings about Abdullah I of Jordan in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW