Generalissimo

Generalissimo[1] (/ˌdʒɛnərəˈlɪsɪmoʊ/ JEN-(ə-)rə-LISS-im-oh) is a military rank of the highest degree, superior to field marshal and other five-star ranks in the states where they are used.

Comparative military ranks
Armies,
air forces
(non-Commonwealth),
space forces,
marines		 Navies,
coast guard		 Air forces
(Commonwealth system)
Senior commissioned officers
Field marshal or
general of the army or
general of the air force		 Admiral of
the fleet or
grand admiral		 Marshal of the air force
General or
colonel general or
army general		 Admiral or
general admiral		 Air chief marshal
Lieutenant general or
army corps general		 Vice admiral Air marshal
Major general or
divisional general		 Rear admiral or
Counter admiral		 Air vice-marshal
Brigadier or
brigadier general		 Commodore or
flotilla admiral		 Air commodore
Colonel Captain Group captain
Lieutenant colonel Commander Wing commander
Major or
commandant		 Lieutenant
commander		 Squadron leader
Junior commissioned officers
Captain Lieutenant Flight lieutenant
Lieutenant or
first lieutenant		 Lieutenant
junior grade or
sub-lieutenant		 Flying officer
Second lieutenant or
junior lieutenant		 Ensign or
midshipman		 Pilot officer
Officer cadet Officer cadet Flight cadet
Non-commissioned officers
Warrant officer or
sergeant major		 Warrant officer or
chief petty officer		 Warrant officer
Sergeant Petty officer Sergeant
Enlisted ranks
Corporal or
bombardier or
specialist		 Leading seaman Corporal or Leading aircraftman
Private or
gunner or
trooper or
sapper		 Seaman Aircraftman or
airman or
aviator

Usage

The word generalissimo (pronounced [dʒeneraˈlissimo]), an Italian term, is the absolute superlative of generale ('general') thus meaning "the highest-ranking of all generals". The superlative suffix -issimo itself derives from Latin -issimus,[2][3][4][5][6] meaning "utmost, to the highest grade". Similar cognates in other languages include generalísimo in Spanish, generalíssimo in Portuguese, généralissime in French, and generalissimus in Latin.

Historically this rank was given to a military officer leading an entire army or the entire armed forces of a state, usually only subordinate to the sovereign.[7] The military leader Albrecht von Wallenstein in 1632 was the first imperial generalissimo (general of the generals). Other usage of the rank has been for the commander of the united armies of several allied powers and if a senior military officer becomes the head of state or head of government of a nation like Chiang Kai-Shek in China and later in Taiwan, and Francisco Franco in Spain.

The rank generalissimus of the Soviet Union would have been a generalissimo but some sources assert that Joseph Stalin refused to accept the rank.[8][9] In fact the grade was established by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet which did not need the "approval" of Stalin.[10] The rank of generalissimo for Stalin was used also by Western diplomacy.[11]

In the 20th century, the term came to be associated with military officers who took dictatorial power in their countries, especially due to the Spanish Francisco Franco having this rank. As such, it is used in literature depicting fictional Latin American dictatorial regimes, for example Father Hilary's Holiday by Bruce Marshall.[12]

List of generalissimos
Chiang Kai-shek
Emilio Aguinaldo, First President of the Philippines.
Charles XIV John as Crown Prince. Between 1812–1814 Charles John was offered the role of Generalissimo by Sweden, Russia, Imperial France and Bourbon France.
Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1625), the first generalissimo
Alexander Suvorov
PersonServiceCountryEraNotes
Chiang Kai-shekNational Revolutionary ArmyRepublic of China1926-1975Appointed commander in chief of the Nationalist Army for the Northern Expedition.[13] In 1935 was appointed "general special class" (特級上將 Tèjí shàng jiàng).
Joseph JoffreFrench ArmyFrance1914His dignity (rank) was Marshal of France, but his title as commander-in-chief of the French Army was généralissime.[14]
Alexander Danilovich MenshikovRussian Imperial ArmyRussian Empire1727–1728[15]
Duke Anthony Ulrich of BrunswickRussian Imperial ArmyRussian Empire1740–1741[16]
Alexander SuvorovRussian Imperial ArmyRussian Empire1799
Ferdinand FochFrench ArmyFrance1918Généralissime was the title used to describe Ferdinand Foch's Allied Command, starting March 26, 1918. He actually held the rank of général de division, the dignity (rank) of Marshal of France and later the ranks of British field marshal and marshal of Poland.[17]
Maurice GamelinFrench ArmyFrance1939His rank was général d'armée, but his title as commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces was généralissime.
Maxime WeygandFrench ArmyFrance1940His rank was général d'armée, but his title as commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces was généralissime.
Francisco de MirandaVenezuelan ArmyVenezuela1812
Miguel Hidalgo y CostillaRevolutionary Army of MexicoAmérica Mexicana1810– 1811[18]
José María MorelosRevolutionary Army of MexicoAmérica Mexicana1813–1815[19]
Agustín de IturbideMexican ArmyAmérica Mexicana1821–1823[20]
Máximo GómezCuban Revolutionary Armed ForcesCuba1895–1898[21]
José de San MartínPeruvian ArmyPeru1821–1822Generalísimo de las Armas del Perú
Francisco FrancoSpanish Armed ForcesSpain1936–1975Generalísimo, was used as a combination rank as he held the highest possible rank in all three branches of service. capitán general, capitán general del Aire, capitán general de la Armada.[22]
Emilio AguinaldoPhilippine Revolutionary ArmyPhilippines1898–1901Generalissimo of the Katipunan[23]
Ihsan NuriArarat ForcesKurdish Republic of Ararat1927–1930[24]
William, Count of Schaumburg-LippeRoyal Portuguese ArmyPortugal1762–1763William became Generalissimus of the Allied Armies in Portugal during the Spanish Invasion.
Prince Consort Frederick of HesseRoyal Swedish ArmySweden1716–1720Fredrick was named Generalissimo of the Swedish Armed Forces in 1716 by King Charles XII.[25]
Crown Prince Charles JohnRoyal Swedish ArmySweden1810–1818Named Generalissimo of the Swedish Armed Forces on October 20, 1810, upon his arrival to Sweden. Charles John had the singular distinction of having been offered the role of Generalissimo of four different nations: Sweden (accepted), Imperial Russia, offered by Alexander during the Conference at Abo in 1812,[26] of a restored Bourbon France in 1814 (offered by Louis XVIII's brother the Comte D'Artois),[27] and a desperate offer by Napoleon in early 1814 as an inducement for Sweden to switch its alliance to France.[28] Charles John declined the latter three.[29][30][Note 1]
Joseph StalinSoviet Armed ForcesSoviet Union1945Generalissimus of the Soviet Union[31] (declined usage)
Kim Il-sungKorean People's ArmyNorth Korea1992Taewonsu[32][33]
Kim Jong-ilKorean People's ArmyNorth Korea2012Taewonsu (posthumously awarded)[34][33]
Rafael TrujilloDominican ArmyDominican Republic1930[35]
Sun Yat-senNational Revolutionary Army – Warlord Era (Northern Expedition) Republic of China1921Technically as da yuan shuai or "grand marshal of the army and navy"[36][37]
Albrecht von WallensteinThirty Years' WarHoly Roman Empire via the "Principal Decree of the Imperial Deputation"[38]1625[39]
Karl Philipp, Prince of SchwarzenbergAustrian ArmyAustrian Empire1813–1814Generalissimo of the Armies of the Habsburg Empire and senior Field Marshal of the combined forces of the Sixth Coalition. He led the largest Allied field army, the Army of Bohemia, during the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and the Invasion of France in early 1814.[40]
John J. PershingUnited States ArmyUnited States of America1919Promoted to General of the Armies of the United States on September 3, 1919.[41]
Mao ZedongPeople's Liberation ArmyPeople's Republic of China1955Proposed the rank of Generalissimo of the People's Republic of China (declined usage)
John Churchill, 1st Duke of MarlboroughWar of the Spanish SuccessionDutch Republic1702Referred to as generalissimo by the Dutch States General.[42]
Prince George of DenmarkBritish ArmyKingdom of Great Britain1702–1708Declared "generalissimo of all our Forces within Our Kingdom of England and Ireland and Elsewhere" by his wife Queen Anne[43][44]
James, Duke of YorkThird Anglo-Dutch WarKingdom of England1673"Generalissimo and supreme commander' over forces employed against the Dutch.[43]
Louis Dauphin of FranceWar of the Spanish SuccessionFrance1708Commanded French Army[45]
George WashingtonContinental Army
United States Army		United States of America1776When chosen to be the commander-in-chief, was called by the Virginia Gazette the generalissimo of the American forces.[46] Promoted posthumously to General of the Armies of the United States on January 19, 1976, with date of rank of July 4, 1976.[47]
Deodoro da FonsecaBrazilian ArmyBrazil1890[48]
KalākauaHawaiian ArmyKingdom of Hawaii1886–1891King of Hawaii, was given titles of "supreme commander and generalissimo of the Hawaiian Army".[49]
Zhang ZuolinNational Pacification ArmyRepublic of China (1912–1949)1927–1928Leader of the Beiyang government, declared generalissimo (da yuan shuai) in June 1927[50]
Hirohito (Emperor Shōwa)Armed Forces of the Empire of JapanEmpire of Japan1926–1945Dai-gensui, as sovereign ruler of the Empire of Japan[51]

See also
  • Admiralissimo
  • Capo dei capi
  • Caudillo
  • Commander-in-chief
  • Grand marshal
  • Da yuan shuai
  • Dai-gensui
  • Field marshal
  • General of the Armies
  • Generalissimus of the Soviet Union
  • Highest military ranks
  • Shogun
  • Six-star rank

Notes
  1. The Napoleonic Marshal of France Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince of Ponte Corvo, was elected Crown Prince of Sweden by the Riksdag of the Estates and King Charles XIII in 1810. Given his exalted French military rank, the rank of generalissimus was likely granted him in order to give him precedence over "mere" Swedish field marshals. Once he became King of Sweden and Norway in 1818, the generalissimus rank became superfluous.

References
  1. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature, Enlarged and Improved. Archibald Constable. 1823. pp. 484. generalissimo.
  2. Webster's Third New International Dictionary. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help), French Larousse Étymologique.
  3. "Online Etymology Dictionary". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  4. "Define Generalissimo at Dictionary.com". Reference.com.
  5. "Generalissimo – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-Webster.
  6. "Definition of generalissimo – Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)". Oxford Dictionary of English. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012.
  7. Thomas Hobbes (1660), Chapter XVIII: Of the Rights of Sovereigns by institution, retrieved August 16, 2015
  8. Service, Robert (2005). Stalin: A Biography. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 548. ISBN 978-0-674-01697-2.
  9. S. M. Shtemenko. The General Staff in the War Years. Moskva 1985. Vietnamese version (vol. 2) . pp. 587–588.
  10. Сборник законов СССР и Указов Президиума Верховного Совета СССР (1938 — июль 1956) / Сост.: М. И. Юмашев, Б. А. Жалейко. — М., 1956. — С. 202.
  11. "Generalissimo Stalin (Hansard, 7 November 1945)".
  12. Marshall, B: Father Hilary's Holiday Doubleday & Company, New York 1965.
  13. The New York Times, December 4, 1926, pg.6.
  14. Doughty, Robert A. (June 30, 2009). Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War. Harvard University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-674-03431-0.
  15. "Menschikow und Stalin waren die einzigen Heerführer der russischen Geschichte, die sich 'Generalissimus' nennen ließen." [Menshikov and Stalin were the only military leaders in Russian history who declared themselves "generalissimus".] Jena, Detlev (1996): Die russischen Zaren in Lebensbildern, Graz, p. 520.
  16. https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital-collection/01.+Paintings/128240
  17. John McGroarty :The Gray Man of Christ: Generalissimo Foch (1919) Los Angeles, Walter A Abbott
  18. Comunica Miguel Hidalgo su proclamaci n como General simo de Am rica. Documentos Historicos de Mexico, October 24, 1810.
  19. "Inauguration of the exhibition José María Morelos y Pavón. Generalissimo of Mexican America armies". Gobierno de México (in Spanish). Noticias – Dirección General de Asuntos internacionales – Secretaría de Cultura. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
  20. Anna, Timothy E. (1985). "The Rule of Agustin de Iturbide: A Reappraisal". Journal of Latin American Studies. 17 (1): 79–110. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00009202. ISSN 0022-216X. JSTOR 157498. S2CID 145054515.
  21. Rioseco, Pedro. "Generalísimo Máximo Gómez, ejemplo de internacionalismo y genio militar". Contraloría General de la República (in Spanish). Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  22. "Franco of Iberia". Time, October 18, 1943. cover.
  23. Whitefield, George. "Annual report of Major General George W. Davis, United States Army commanding Division of the Philippines from October 1, 1902, to July 26, 1903" (1903) [Textual record]. Archive.Org, ID: annualreportofma03unit, p. 188. Boston Public Library. OCLC 1039990497.
  24. Bletch Chirguh, La Question Kurde: ses origines et ses causes, Le Caire, Impimerie Paul Barbey, 1930, front cover, Ihsan Nouri Pacha Généralissime des forces nationales Kurdes (in French)
  25. Pock, Johann Joseph (1724). Der politische, katholische Passagier, durchreisend alle hohe Höfe, Republiquen, Herrschafften und Länder der ganzen Welt. Brechenmacher. p. 832. Retrieved September 16, 2018. wurde 1720. von dem König in Schweden ... zum Generalissimo der sämmtlichen Schwedischen Trouppen ernennet
  26. Barton, Sir Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King. P. 39. John Murray, London.
  27. Barton, Sir Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King. P. 127. John Murray, London.
  28. Scott, Franklin (1935). Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon. P. 153. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
  29. (in Swedish) Ancienneté och Rang-Rulla öfver Krigsmagten år 1813
  30. Barton, Sir Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King. P. 4. John Murray, London.
  31. Joseph Stalin was appointed generalissimus of the Soviet Union. See: Ivan Aleksandrovich Venediktov, Selskokhozyaystvennaya entsiklopediya, Vol. 4, Gos. izd-vo selkhoz, 1956, p. 584. (in Russian)
  32. The Daily Yomuiri, 29 September 2010, Kim Jong Un spotlighted / 'Heir apparent' promoted to general, makes DPRK media debut at the Wayback Machine (archived 2 October 2010)
  33. "Late North Korean Leader Promoted to Generalissimo". Voice of America. February 14, 2012.
  34. The Australian, 15 February 2012, Late Kim Jong-il awarded highest honour by North at the Wayback Machine (archived 17 February 2012)
  35. Stanley Walker, Generalissimo Rafael L. Trujillo (1955) Caribbean Library
  36. Linda Pomerantz-Zhang (1992). Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): Reform and Modernization in Modern Chinese History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 255. ISBN 962209287X. Retrieved October 31, 2010.
  37. Taylor, Jay (April 15, 2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China. Harvard University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-674-05471-4. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  38. A short history of Germany. Ernest Flagg Henderson, 1908
  39. Tilly und Wallenstein – ein Vergleich zweier Heerführer. Harry Horstmann, 2010. (in German)
  40. Peck, Harry Thurston (1898). The International Cyclopedia: A Compendium of Human Knowledge, Rev. with Large Additions. Dodd, Mead. p. 238.
  41. Public Law 66-45 of September 3, 1919, to revive the office of General of the Armies
  42. Rapin de Thoyras (M., Paul) (1745). Nicholas Tindal (ed.). The History of England. Vol. IV, part 1 (French original: Histoire d'Angleterre, 1724–27). J. and P. Knapton. p. 562. Retrieved September 16, 2018. The Earl of Athlone [Godard van Reede] was set on by the other Dutch Generals, to insist on his quality of Velt-Marshal, and to have the command with the Earl of Marlborough by turns. But, though he was now in high reputation by his late conduct, the States obliged him to yield this point to the Earl of Marlborough, whom they declared Generalissimo of all their forces, and sent orders to all their Generals and other Officers to obey him.
  43. Roper, Michael (1998). The Records of the War Office and Related Departments, 1660–1964. Kew, Surrey: Public Record Office. p. 5.
  44. Rapin de Thoyras (M., Paul) (1745). Nicholas Tindal (ed.). The History of England. Vol. IV, part 1 (French original: Histoire d'Angleterre, 1724–27). J. and P. Knapton. p. 104. Retrieved September 16, 2018. The Prince was Duke of Cumberland, Lord High-Admiral of Great-Britain and Ireland, Generalissimo of all her Majesty's forces both by sea and land, and Warden of the Cinque-ports.
  45. Rapin de Thoyras (M., Paul) (1745). Nicholas Tindal (ed.). The History of England. Vol. IV, part 1 (French original: Histoire d'Angleterre, 1724–27). J. and P. Knapton. p. 68. Retrieved September 16, 2018. But an unexpected alteration was suddenly made, and the French King declared the Duke of Burgundy Generalissimo of his forces, appointing the Duke de Vendosme [sic: Vendôme] to serve under him; and he was to be accompanied by the Duke of Berry.
  46. Chadwick, Bruce (2005). George Washington's War: The Forging of a Revolutionary Leader and the American Presidency. Sourcebooks, Inc. p. 40. ISBN 9781402226106. Retrieved November 23, 2018.
  47. Public Law 94-479 of January 19, 1976 to provide for the appointment of George Washington to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States
  48. Andermann, Jens; Rowe, William (2006). Images of Power: Iconography, Culture and the State in Latin America. Berghahn Books. p. 176. ISBN 9781845452124.
  49. Chapter XXII: Act Act To Organize The Military Forces Of The Kingdom. Laws of His Majesty Kalakaua, King of the Hawaiian Islands: Passed by the Legislative Assembly at Its Session of 1886. Honolulu: Black & Auld. 1886. pp. 37–41. OCLC 42350849.
  50. Moore, Frederick (June 18, 1927). "Chang Tso-lin Made Dictator in Move to Beat Back South". The New York Times. Retrieved February 4, 2020.
  51. Bix, Herbert P. (October 13, 2009). Hirohito And The Making Of Modern Japan. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-186047-8.
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