Robert Walpole

As a young man, Walpole had bought shares in the South Sea Company, which monopolised trade with Spain, the Caribbean and South America. The speculative market for slaves, rum and mahogany spawned a frenzy that had ramifications throughout Europe when it collapsed. However, Walpole had bought at the bottom and sold at the top, adding greatly to his inherited wealth and allowing him to create Houghton Hall as seen today.[13]

Walpole's political career began in January 1701 when he won a seat in the English general election at Castle Rising in Norfolk. He left Castle Rising in 1702 so that he could represent the neighbouring borough of King's Lynn, a pocket borough that would re-elect him for the remainder of his political career. Voters and politicians nicknamed him "Robin".[12]

Like his father, Robert Walpole was a member of the Whig Party.[14] In 1705, Walpole was appointed by Queen Anne to be a member of the council for her husband, Prince George of Denmark, Lord High Admiral. After having been singled out in a struggle between the Whigs and the government, Walpole became the intermediary for reconciling the government to the Whig leaders. His abilities were recognised by Lord Godolphin (the Lord High Treasurer and leader of the Cabinet) and he was subsequently appointed to the position of Secretary at War in 1708; for a short period of time in 1710 he also simultaneously held the post of Treasurer of the Navy.[15]

Despite his personal clout, however, Walpole could not stop Lord Godolphin and the Whigs from pressing for the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell, a minister who preached anti-Whig sermons. The trial was extremely unpopular with much of the country, causing the Sacheverell riots, and was followed by the downfall of the Duke of Marlborough and the Whig Party in the general election of 1710. The new ministry, under the leadership of the Tory Robert Harley, removed Walpole from his office of Secretary at War but he remained Treasurer of the Navy until 2 January 1711. Harley had first attempted to entice him and then threatened him to join the Tories, but Walpole rejected the offers, instead becoming one of the most outspoken members of the Whig Opposition. He effectively defended Lord Godolphin against Tory attacks in parliamentary debate, as well as in the press.[16]

In 1712, Walpole was accused of venality and corruption in the matter of two forage contracts for Scotland. Although it was proven that he had retained none of the money, Walpole was pronounced "guilty of a high breach of trust and notorious corruption".[17] He was impeached by the House of Commons and found guilty by the House of Lords; he was then imprisoned in the Tower of London for six months and expelled from Parliament. While in the Tower he was regarded as a political martyr, and visited by all the Whig leaders. After he was released, Walpole wrote and published anonymous pamphlets attacking the Harley ministry and assisted Sir Richard Steele in crafting political pamphlets. Walpole was re-elected for King's Lynn in 1713.[17]

Queen Anne died in 1714. Under the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded Roman Catholics from the line of succession, Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, the Elector of Hanover, George I. George I distrusted the Tories, who he believed opposed his right to succeed to the Throne. The year of George's accession, 1714, marked the ascendancy of the Whigs who would remain in power for the next fifty years. Robert Walpole became a Privy Councillor and rose to the position of Paymaster of the Forces[18] in a Cabinet nominally led by Lord Halifax, but actually dominated by Lord Townshend (Walpole's brother-in-law) and James Stanhope. Walpole was also appointed chairman of a secret committee formed to investigate the actions of the previous Tory ministry in 1715.[19] Lord Oxford was impeached, and Lord Bolingbroke suffered from an act of attainder.[18]

Lord Halifax, the titular head of the administration, died in 1715 and by 1716 Walpole was appointed to the posts of First Commissioner (Lord) of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was a member of the Board of General Officers established in 1717 to investigate the abuse of pay. Walpole's fellow members, appointed by the Prince of Wales, included William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath – Secretary at War, General Lumley, General Erle and Sir Philip Meadowes – Controller of the Army and Knight Marshal of the King's Palace,[20][21] whose daughter, Mary Meadows,[22][23] was maid-of-honour to Walpole's friend, Queen Caroline. A keen huntsman, Walpole built for himself Great Lodge (Old Lodge) in Richmond Park. Philip Medows, the deputy ranger of the park and son of Walpole's political ally, Sir Philip Meadowes, lived at Great Lodge after Walpole had vacated it.[24][25][20]

In his new political positions, and encouraged by his advisers, Walpole introduced the sinking fund, a device to reduce the national debt.[26] The Cabinet of which he was a member was often divided over most important issues. Normally, Walpole and Lord Townshend were on one side, with Stanhope and Lord Sunderland on the other. Foreign policy was the primary issue of contention; George I was thought to be conducting foreign affairs with the interests of his German territories, rather than those of Great Britain, at heart. The Stanhope–Sunderland faction, however, had the King's support. In 1716 Townshend had been removed from the important post of Northern Secretary and put in the lesser office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.[27] Even this change did not appease Stanhope and Sunderland, who secured the dismissal of Townshend from the Lord-Lieutenancy in April 1717.[27] On the next day, Walpole resigned from the Cabinet to join the Opposition "because I could not connive at some things that were carrying on",[28] and by joining the opposition he did not intend "to make the king uneasy or to embarrass his affairs."[29] This began the Whig Split, dividing the dominant party for three years. In the new Cabinet, Sunderland and Stanhope (who was created an Earl) were the effective heads. Walpole reversed his earlier support for the Impeachment of Robert Harley, the former first minister, and joined with the Tory opposition in securing an acquittal in July 1717.[30]

Soon after Walpole's resignation, a bitter family quarrel between the King and the Prince of Wales split the Royal Family. Walpole and others who opposed the Government often congregated at Leicester House, the home of the Prince of Wales, to form political plans.[31] Walpole also became an adviser and close friend of the Prince of Wales's wife, Caroline.[32] In 1720 he improved his position by bringing about a reconciliation between the Prince of Wales and the King.[33]

Walpole continued to be an influential figure in the House of Commons.[34] He was especially active in opposing one of the Government's more significant proposals, the Peerage Bill, which would have limited the power of the monarch to create new peerages.[35] Walpole brought about a temporary abandonment of the bill in 1719[34] and the outright rejection of the bill by the House of Commons.[32] This defeat led Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland to reconcile with their opponents;[36] Walpole returned as Paymaster of the Forces[32] and Townshend was appointed Lord President of the Council. By accepting the position of Paymaster, however, Walpole lost the favour of the Prince of Wales (the future King George II), who still harboured disdain for his father's Government.[37]

Under the guidance of Walpole, Parliament attempted to deal with the financial crisis brought on by the South Sea Bubble. The estates of the directors of the South Sea Company were used to relieve the suffering of the victims, and the stock of the company was divided between the Bank of England and East India Company.[32] The crisis had gravely damaged the credibility of the King and of the Whig Party, but Walpole defended both with skilful oratory in the House of Commons.[45]

Walpole's first year as prime minister was also marked by the discovery of a plot formed by Francis Atterbury, the bishop of Rochester.[46] The exposure of the scheme crushed the hopes of the Jacobites whose previous attempts at rebellion (most notably the risings of 1715 and 1719) had also failed. The Tory Party was equally unfortunate even though Lord Bolingbroke, a Tory leader who fled to France to avoid punishment for his Jacobite sympathies, was permitted to return to Britain in 1723.[47]

Speaker Arthur Onslow calling upon Sir Robert Walpole to Speak in the House of Commons by William Hogarth

During the remainder of George I's reign, Walpole's ascendancy continued; the political power of the monarch was gradually diminishing and that of his ministers gradually increasing.[48] In 1724 the primary political rival of Walpole and Townshend in the Cabinet, Lord Carteret, was dismissed from the post of Southern Secretary and once again appointed to the lesser office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. In Ireland, Lord Carteret used his power to secretly aid in the controversy over Wood's Halfpence and support Drapier's Letters behind the scenes and cause harm to Walpole's power.[49][50] Walpole was able to recover from these events by removing the patent. However, Irish sentiment was situated against the English control.[51]

Townshend, working with the king, helped keep Great Britain at peace, especially by negotiating a treaty with France and Prussia in 1725. Walpole was not consulted and stated that Townshend was "too precipitate" in his actions.[52] Great Britain, free from Jacobite threats, from war, and from financial crises, grew prosperous, and Robert Walpole acquired the favour of George I.[48] In 1725 he persuaded the king to revive the Knighthood of the Bath and was himself invested with the order,[53][52] and in 1726 was made a Knight of the Garter,[54] earning him the nickname "Sir Bluestring".[52] His eldest son was granted a barony.[55]

Walpole's position was threatened in 1727 when George I died and was succeeded by George II. For a few days it seemed that Walpole would be dismissed but, on the advice of Queen Caroline, the King agreed to keep him in office. Although the King disliked Townshend, he retained him as well. Over the next years Walpole continued to share power with Townshend but the two clashed over British foreign affairs, especially over policy regarding Austria. Gradually Walpole became the clearly dominant partner in government. His colleague retired on 15 May 1730 and this date is sometimes given as the beginning of Walpole's unofficial tenure as prime minister. Townshend's departure enabled Walpole to conclude the Treaty of Vienna, creating the Anglo-Austrian alliance.[56]

Walpole, a polarising figure, had many opponents, the most important of whom were in the Country Party, such as Lord Bolingbroke (who had been his political enemy since the days of Queen Anne)[57] and William Pulteney (a capable Whig statesman who felt snubbed when Walpole failed to include him in the Cabinet).[58] Bolingbroke and Pulteney ran a periodical called The Craftsman in which they incessantly denounced the Prime Minister's policies.[59] Walpole was also satirised and parodied extensively; he was often compared to the criminal Jonathan Wild as, for example, John Gay did in his farcical Beggar's Opera. Walpole's other enemies included Jonathan Swift,[60] Alexander Pope, Henry Fielding, and Samuel Johnson.[61]

Walpole with his secretary, Henry Bilson-Legge, by Stephen Slaughter

Walpole secured the support of the people and of the House of Commons with a policy of avoiding war. He used his influence to prevent George II from entering the War of the Polish Succession in 1733, because it was a dispute between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs. He boasted, "There are 50,000 men slain in Europe this year, and not one Englishman."[62] By avoiding wars, Walpole could lower taxes. He reduced the national debt with a sinking fund, and by negotiating lower interest rates. He reduced the land tax from four shillings in 1721, to 3s in 1728, 2s in 1731 and finally to only 1s in 1732. His long-term goal was to replace the land tax, which was paid by the local gentry, with excise and customs taxes, which were paid by merchants and ultimately by consumers. Walpole joked that the landed gentry resembled hogs, which squealed loudly whenever anyone laid hands on him. By contrast, he said, merchants were like sheep, and yielded their wool without complaint.[63] The joke backfired in 1733 when he was defeated in a major battle to impose excise taxes on wine and tobacco. To reduce the threat of smuggling, the tax was to be collected not at ports but at warehouses. This new proposal, however, was extremely unpopular and aroused the opposition of the nation's merchants. Walpole agreed to withdraw the bill before Parliament voted on it, but he dismissed the politicians who had dared to oppose it in the first place. Thus, Walpole lost a considerable element of his Whig Party to the Opposition.[64]

After the general elections of 1734, Walpole's supporters still formed a majority in the House of Commons although they were less numerous than before. He maintained both his parliamentary supremacy and his popularity in Norfolk, his home county. In May 1734, he presented a new silver mace "weighing 168 ounces, gilt and finely exchased, to the city of Norwich – on the cup part of it are Sir Robert's arms, and the arms of the city; it was first carried before Mayor Philip Meadows Esq. on the 29th of May".[65][66] However, despite these great occasions, Walpole's broader popularity had begun to wane.[67] In 1736 an increase in the tax on gin inspired riots in London. The even more serious Porteous riots broke out in Edinburgh after the King pardoned a captain of the guard (John Porteous) who had commanded his troops to shoot a group of protesters. Though these events diminished Walpole's popularity,[67] they failed to shake his majority in Parliament. Walpole's domination over the House of Commons was highlighted by the ease with which he secured the rejection of Sir John Barnard's plan to reduce the interest on the national debt. Walpole was also able to persuade Parliament to pass the Licensing Act of 1737 under which London theatres were regulated.[68] The Act revealed a disdain for Swift, Pope, Fielding, and other literary figures who had attacked his government in their works.[69]

While the "country party" attacked Walpole relentlessly, he subsidised writers and lesser-known journalists such as William Arnall and Bishop Benjamin Hoadly as well as two men he named to the role of poet laureate, Laurence Eusden and Colley Cibber. They defended Walpole from the charge of evil political corruption by arguing that corruption is the universal human condition. Furthermore, they argued, political divisiveness was also universal and inevitable because of selfish passions that were integral to human nature. Arnall argued that government must be strong enough to control conflict, and in that regard Walpole was quite successful. This style of "court" political rhetoric continued through the 18th century.[70]

1740 political cartoon depicting Walpole as the Colossus of Rhodes, alluding to his reluctance to engage Spain and France militarily

Satire on Nicholas Paxton, solicitor to the Treasury, and his refusal to answer questions from the Committee of Secrecy enquiring into the conduct of Robert Walpole.

The year 1737 saw the death of Walpole's close friend Queen Caroline. Though her death did not end his personal influence with George II, who had grown loyal to the Prime Minister during the preceding years, Walpole's domination of government continued to decline. His opponents acquired a vocal leader in the Prince of Wales who was estranged from his father, the King. Several young politicians including William Pitt the Elder and George Grenville formed a faction known as the "Patriot Boys" and joined the Prince of Wales in opposition.[71]

Walpole's failure to maintain a policy of avoiding military conflict eventually led to his fall from power.[72] Under the Treaty of Seville (1729), Great Britain agreed not to trade with the Spanish colonies in North America. Spain claimed the right to board and search British vessels to ensure compliance with this provision. Disputes, however, broke out over trade with the West Indies. Walpole attempted to prevent war but was opposed by the King, the House of Commons, and by a faction in his own Cabinet. In 1739 Walpole abandoned all efforts to stop the conflict and commenced the War of Jenkins' Ear (so called because Robert Jenkins, a Welsh mariner, claimed that a Spaniard inspecting his vessel had severed his ear).

Walpole's influence continued to dramatically decline even after the war began. In the 1741 general election his supporters secured an increase in votes in constituencies that were decided by mass electorates but failed to win in many pocket boroughs (constituencies subject to the informal but strong influence of patrons). In general the government made gains in England and Wales but this was not enough to overturn the reverses of the 1734 election and further losses in Cornwall where many constituencies were obedient to the will of the Prince of Wales (who was also Duke of Cornwall). These constituencies returned members of parliament hostile to the Prime Minister. Similarly, the influence of the Duke of Argyll secured the election of members opposed to Walpole in some parts of Scotland. Walpole's new majority was difficult to determine because of the uncertain loyalties of many new members, but contemporaries and historians estimated it as low as fourteen to eighteen.[73]

In the new Parliament, many Whigs thought the aging Prime Minister incapable of leading the military campaign. Moreover, his majority was not as strong as it had formerly been, his detractors—such as William Pulteney, earl of Bath, and Lord Perceval—being approximately as numerous as his supporters. Behind these political enemies were opposition Whigs, Tories and Jacobites. Walpole was alleged to have presided over an immense increase in corruption and to have enriched himself enormously whilst in office. Parliamentary committees were formed to investigate these charges.[74] In 1742 when the House of Commons was prepared to determine the validity of a by-election in Chippenham, Walpole and others agreed to treat the issue as a motion of no confidence. As Walpole was defeated on the vote, he agreed to resign from the Government. The news of the naval disaster against Spain in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias also prompted the end of his political career. King George II wept on his resignation and begged to see him frequently.[75] As part of his resignation the King agreed to elevate him to the House of Lords as the Earl of Orford, Viscount Walpole and Baron Walpole of Houghton in the County of Norfolk, this occurred on 6 February 1742. Five days later he formally relinquished the seals of office.[76]

Although no longer First Lord of the Treasury, Walpole remained politically involved as an advisor. His former colleagues were still pleased to see him, perhaps in part because he retained the king's favour. After his resignation, his main political roles were to support the government by means of advice, to dole out some patronage and to speak on the ministry's behalf in the Lords.[77]

Arms of Shorter, of Bybrook, Kent: Sable, a lion rampant or ducally crowned argent between three battle axes of the last headed of the second[95]

On 30 July 1700, Walpole married Catherine Shorter (1682-1737),[96] the eldest daughter[97] and co-heiress[98] of John Shorter of Bybrook in Ashford, Kent (the son of Sir John Shorter (1625–1688), Lord Mayor of London) by his wife Elizabeth Philipps (born c. 1664), a daughter of Sir Erasmus Philipps, 3rd Baronet.[99] She was described as "a woman of exquisite beauty and accomplished manners".[12] Her £20,000 dowry was, according to Walpole's brother Horatio Walpole, spent on the wedding, christenings and jewels.[100] Her sister and co-heiress Charlotte Shorter married (as his third wife) Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Baron Conway (1679-1731/2), by whom she was the mother of Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford (1718–1794). Sir John Shorter (c.1625-1688), Lord Mayor of London, married Isabel Birkhead, a sister of Edward Birkhead (d.1662) of Richmond House, Twickenham, Serjeant-at-Arms in the House of Commons in 1648, a Quaker Magistrate and the principal landowner in the parish of Twickenham.[101] Catherine's youngest son Horace later built Strawberry Hill House on land purchased by him at Twickenham. Catherine Shorter died on 20 August 1737 and was buried at Houghton,[102] with a monument in the south aisle of the King Henry VII Chapel, Westminster Abbey,[103] erected by her son Horatio, in the form of a life-size white marble statue, a copy by Filippo della Valle of a Roman statue of Livia (or Pudicitia) in the Villa Mattei in Rome.[104] On the plinth sculpted by John Michael Rysbrack is the following inscription written by Horace:[105]

To the memory of Catherine Lady Walpole, eldest daughter of John Shorter, Esqr. of Bybrook in Kent and first wife of Sir Robert Walpole, afterwards Earl of Orford, Horace her youngest son consecrates this monument. She had beauty and wit without vice or vanity, and cultivated the Arts without affectation. She was devout, tho' without bigotry to any sect, and was without prejudice to any party tho' the wife of a minister, whose power she esteemed but when she could employ it to benefit the miserable or to reward the meritorious. She loved a private life, tho' born to shine in public; and was an ornament to courts, untainted by them. She died Aug. 20 1737.

By Catherine Shorter he had two daughters and three sons:[103]

• Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford, eldest son and heir, who in 1724 married Margaret Rolle (17 January 1709 – 13 January 1781), later suo jure 15th Baroness Clinton.[106] They had one son[103] George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford and 16th Baron Clinton (1730–1791), who left no legitimate children and died insane.
• Katherine Walpole,[103] who died unmarried and without issue;[107]
• Mary Walpole, who on 14 September 1723 married George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley.[103] They had sons and daughters[108][109] and the Houghton Estate eventually became the inheritance of the Cholmondeley family. She died at Aix-en-Provence in 1731, and was buried at Malpas, Cheshire.[103][110]
• Edward Walpole, who died unmarried but had four illegitimate children by his mistress Dorothy Clement:
  • Edward, born in 1737, died in 1771 without issue;
  • Laura, the eldest daughter, who married Bishop Frederick Keppel;
  • Maria Walpole (d. 1807) (Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh), the second daughter, who married firstly James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave and secondly Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh the brother of King King George III.
  • Charlotte, the youngest daughter, who married Lionel Tollemache, 5th Earl of Dysart.[103]
• Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (24 September 1717 – 2 March 1797), of Strawberry Hill House, Twickenham, youngest son, the diarist known to history as "Horace Walpole". He became the 4th and last Earl of Orford on his nephew's death in 1791, and died unmarried and without issue.

Arms of Skerritt: Or, a chief indented sable[111]

Prior to the death of his first wife Walpole took on a mistress, Maria Skerittt (d.1738), a fashionable socialite of wit and beauty, with an independent fortune of £30,000,[112] the daughter and sole heiress of Thomas Skerittt (d.1738) (aliter Skerret, Skeritt, etc), a wealthy Irish merchant living in Dover Street, Mayfair, London.[113] They had been living together openly in Richmond Park and Houghton Hall since before 1728,[103] and married at some time before March 1738. She died on 4 June 1739 following a miscarriage. Walpole considered her "indispensable to his happiness", and her loss plunged him into a "deplorable and comfortless condition", which led to a severe illness.[114] By Maria Skerritt he had one daughter, born before the marriage, but subsequently legitimated:[115]

• Maria Walpole,[103] who after her legitimation acquired the style of the daughter of an earl, as Lady Maria Walpole.[116] In 1746 she married Colonel Charles Churchill (1720–1812) of Chalfont, an illegitimate son of General Charles Churchill, and became the king's housekeeper at Windsor Castle.[103][117] By Charles Churchill she had daughters including:
  • Sophia Churchill, who married her relative Horatio Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford (1752-1822), of the second creation of that earldom, the son of Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, son of Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton, 9th brother of Prime Minister Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford.[118]
  • Mary Churchill, who on 10 May 1777 became the second wife of Charles Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan (1728-1807), and had issue, before being divorced in 1796 by her husband for "criminal conversation" with Rev. Mr. Cooper.[119]

• Coxe, William. Memoirs of the Life and Administration of Sir Robert Walpole, Earl of Orford (3 vol 1800) online