The Presidency of John Adams

As the second president to hold office, Federalist John Adams followed Washington's example in stressing civic virtue and republican values. He shared the Federalist belief that the Constitution provided for a strong centralized government; to that end, he retained the Federalist cabinet members who had served under Washington, continued to expand Hamilton's economic policies (for example, building a strong national economy), and greatly increased the size of the navy and army.

Ideology and Tenor

Adams ideologically identified with the Federalists, but he remained quite independent of both the party and his cabinet throughout his term, often making decisions despite strong opposition from both Democratic-Republicans and Federalists. Though Adams was often described as "prickly," his independence demonstrated that he had a talent for making decisions in the face of hostility.

Adams' combative spirit did not always lend itself to presidential decorum, as Adams himself admitted in his old age: "[As president] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore." Likewise, his term witnessed numerous upheavals and conflicts—not only with France, but also as a result of the growing breach between Democratic-Republicans and Federalists.

Foreign Affairs

The president's term was marked by disputes concerning the country's role in the expanding conflict in Europe, where Britain and France were at war. Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists supported Britain, while Vice President Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans favored France. When Adams entered office, he decided to continue Washington's policy of staying out of the European war. 

Adams' independent management style allowed him to avoid war with France, despite a strong desire for war among his cabinet secretaries and Congress. Although the Quasi-War was effectively a naval war fought between the French and the United States in the Caribbean, it was ultimately Adams' decision to push for peace with France rather than continue hostilities. This decision, however, alienated him from many Federalists, hurt his popularity with the American public, and played an important role in his defeat in reelection.

Domestic Affairs

The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the fifth U.S. Congress, in the midst of the French Revolution and the undeclared Quasi-War with France. President Adams signed them into law, and they were intended as a direct political attack on the Democratic-Republicans; essentially, they were codified attempts by the Federalists to protect the United States from the anarchy of the French Revolution and from seditious individuals seeking to undermine the federal government.

After the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, Democratic-Republicans began to use the term "the reign of witches" to describe the Federalist party and John Adams. The acts, Jeffersonian democrats argued, were proof that Federalists were intent on establishing a tyrannical, aristocratic government that would silence the opposition through political persecution. 

President John Adams

John Adams was the second President of the United States, elected in 1796.