Current Trends
Compendium of Animal Rabies Control, 1987
Prepared by: The National Association
of State Public Health Veterinians, Inc. *
Part I: Recommendations for Immunization Procedures
The purpose of these recommendations is to provide information
on rabies
vaccines to practicing veterinarians, public health officials, and
others
concerned with rabies control. This document will serve as the
basis for
animal rabies vaccination programs throughout the United States.
Its
adoption will result in standardization of procedures among
jurisdictions
which is necessary for an effective national rabies control
program. These
recommendations are reviewed and revised as necessary prior to the
beginning of each calendar year. All animal rabies vaccines
licensed by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture and marketed in the United States
are listed
in Part II of the Compendium, and Part III describes the principles
of
rabies control.
VACCINE ADMINISTRATION
It is recommended that all animal rabies vaccines be restricted
to use
by or under the supervision of a veterinarian.
VACCINE SELECTION
In comprehensive rabies control programs, it is recommended
that only
vaccines with 3-year duration of immunity be used. This
eliminates the
need for annual vaccination and constitutes the most effective
method
of increasing the proportion of immunized dogs and cats. (See
Part II)
ROUTE OF INOCULATION
Unless otherwise specified by the product label or package
insert, all
vaccines must be administered intramuscularly at one site in
the thigh.
WILDLIFE VACCINATION
Vaccination is not recommended since no rabies vaccine is
licensed for
use in wild animals and since there is no evidence that any
vaccine
will protect wild animals against rabies. It is recommended
that
neither wild nor exotic animals be kept as pets. Offspring
borne to
wild animals bred with domestic dogs or cats will be considered
as wild
animals.
ACCIDENTAL HUMAN EXPOSURE TO VACCINE
Accidental inoculation may occur in individuals during
administration
of animal rabies vaccine. Such exposure to inactivated vaccines
constitutes no known rabies hazard. There have been no cases of
rabies
resulting from needle or other exposure to a licensed modified
live
virus vaccine in the United States.
IDENTIFICATION OF VACCINATED DOGS
It is recommended that all agencies and veterinarians adopt the
standard tag system. This will aid the administration of local,
state,
national, and international procedures. Dog license tags should
not
conflict in shape and color with rabies tags. It is recommended
that
anodized aluminum rabies tags should not be less than 0.064
inches in
thickness.
Rabies Tags.
Rabies Certificate. All agencies and veterinarians should
use the
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
(NASPHV)
form #50 Rabies Vaccination Certificate, which can be
obtained from
vaccine manufacturers.
***********************************
Part II: Vaccines Marketed in the United States
and NASPHV Recommendations
LARGE TABLE
***********************************
Part III: Principles of Rabies Control
These guidelines have been prepared by the NASPHV for use by
government
officials, practicing veterinarians, and others who may become
involved in
certain aspects of rabies control. It is intended that the NASPHV
will
annually review and revise these recommendations as necessary.
Standardized
control procedures are needed to deal effectively with the public
health
aspects of rabies.
PRINCIPLES OF RABIES CONTROL
Human Rabies Prevention. Rabies in humans can be prevented
either
by eliminating exposures to rabid animals or in exposed
persons by
prompt local wound treatment combined with appropriate
passive and
active immunization. The rationale for recommending
pre-exposure
and post-exposure rabies prophylaxis and details of their
adminis-
tration can be found in the current recommendations of the
Immuni-
zation Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP), of the U.S.
Public
Health Service (USPHS) (1,2). These recommendations, along
with
information concerning the current local and regional
status of
animal rabies and the availability of human rabies
biologics, are
available from state health departments.
Domestic Animals. Local governments should initiate and
maintain
effective programs to remove stray and unwanted animals and
ensure
vaccination of all dogs and cats. Since cat rabies cases
now exceed
the annually reported cases in dogs, immunization of cats
should be
required. Such procedures in the United States have reduced
labor-
atory confirmed rabies cases in dogs from 6,949 in 1947 to
113 in
1985. The recommended vaccination procedures and the
licensed
animal vaccines are specified in Parts I and II of the
NASPHV's
annually released compendium.
Rabies in Wildlife. The control of rabies in foxes, skunks,
raccoons, and other terrestrial animals is very difficult.
Selective reduction of these populations when indicated may
be
useful, but the utility of this procedure depends heavily
upon the
circumstances surrounding each rabies outbreak. (See C.
Control
Methods in Wild Animals.)
CONTROL METHODS IN DOMESTIC AND CONFINED ANIMALS
Pre-exposure Vaccination and Management. Animal rabies
vaccines
should be administered only by or under the direct
supervision of a
veterinarian. This is the only way to assure the public
that the
animal has been properly immunized. Within 1 month after
vaccin-
ation, a peak rabies antibody titer is reached and the
animal can
be considered to be immunized. (See Parts I and II of the
compendium for recommended vaccines and procedures.)
Dogs and Cats. All dogs and cats should be vaccinated
against
rabies commencing at 3 months of age and revaccinated
in
accordance with Part II of this Compendium.
Livestock. It is not economically feasible, nor is it
justified
from a public health standpoint, to vaccinate all
livestock
against rabies. Owners of valuable animals and
veterinary
clinicians may consider immunizing certain livestock
located in
areas where wildlife rabies is epizootic and where
colonies of
bats exist.
Other Animals.
(1) Animals Maintained in Exhibits and in Zoological
Parks.
Captive animals not completely excluded from all
contact
with local vectors of rabies can become infected
with
rabies. Moreover, such animals may be incubating
rabies
when captured. Exhibit animals, especially those
carnivores
and omnivores having contact with the viewing
public,
should be quarantined for a minimum of 180 days.
Since
there is no rabies vaccine licensed for use in wild
animals, vaccination even with inactivated vaccine
is not
recommended. Pre-exposure rabies immunization of
animal
workers at such facilities is recommended. This may
reduce
the need for euthanasia of valuable animals for
rabies
testing after they have bitten a handler.
(2) Wild Animals. Because of the existing risk of
rabies in
wild animals (especially raccoons, skunks, and
foxes), the
American Veterinary Medical Association, the
NASPHV, and
the Conference of State and Territorial
Epidemiologists
strongly recommend the enactment of state laws
prohibiting
the importation, distribution, and relocation of
wild
animals and wild animals crossbred to domestic dogs
and
cats. These same organizations continue to
recommend the
enactment of laws prohibiting the distribution or
keeping
of wild animals as pets. Moreover, the NASPHV
recommends
that ferrets not be kept at pets, since they have
severely
bitten many people, especially inflicting
mutilating bites
to infants. Ferrets are susceptible to and could
transmit
rabies. There is no licensed rabies vaccine for use
in
ferrets.
Stray-Animal Control. Stray dogs or cats should be removed
from the
community, especially in rabies epizootic areas. Local
health
department and animal control officials can enforce the
pick-up of
strays more efficiently if owned animals are confined or
kept on
leash. Strays should be impounded for at least 3 days to
give
owners sufficient time to reclaim animals apprehended as
strays and
to determine if human exposure has occurred.
Quarantine.
International. Present USPHS regulations (42 CFR No.
71.51)
governing the importation of domestic felines and
canines are
minimal for preventing the introduction of rabid
animals into
the United States. All dogs and cats imported from
countries
with endemic rabies should be vaccinated against rabies
at
least 30 days prior to entry into the United States. **
The
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) is responsible for
these
animals imported into the United States. Their
requirements
should be coordinated with interstate shipment
requirements.
The health authority of the state of destination should
be
notified within 72 hours of any animal conditionally
admitted
into its jurisdiction.
The conditional admission into the United States of
such
animals must be subject to state and local laws
governing
rabies. Failure to comply with these requirements
should be
promptly reported to the director of the CDC.
Interstate. Prior to interstate shipment, dogs and cats
should
be vaccinated against rabies according to the
compendium's
recommendations and preferably shall be vaccinated at
least 30
days prior to shipment. While in shipment, they should
be
accompanied by a currently valid NASPHV Form #50 Rabies
Vaccination Certificate. One copy of the certificate
should be
mailed to the appropriate Public Health Veterinarian or
State
Veterinarian of the state of destination.
Health Certificates. If a certificate is required for
dogs and
cats in transit, it must not replace the NASPHV rabies
vaccin-
ation certificate.
Adjunct Procedures. Methods or procedures which enhance
rabies
control include:
Licensure. Registration or licensure of all dogs and
cats may
be used as a means of rabies control by controlling the
stray
animal population. Frequently a fee is charged for such
licensure and revenues collected are used to maintain a
rabies
or animal control program. Vaccination is usually
recommended
as a prerequisite to licensure.
Canvassing of Area. This includes house-to-house calls
by
members of the animal control program to enforce
vaccination
and licensure requirements.
Citations. These are legal summonses issued to owners
for
violations including the failure to vaccinate or
license their
animals.
Leash Laws. All communities should adopt leash laws
which can
be incorporated in their animal control ordinances.
Post-exposure Management. ANY DOMESTIC ANIMAL THAT IS
BITTEN OR
SCRATCHED BY A BAT OR BY A WILD, CARNIVOROUS MAMMAL WHICH
IS NOT
AVAILABLE FOR TESTING SHOULD BE REGARDED AS HAVING BEEN
EXPOSED TO
A RABID ANIMAL.
Dogs and Cats. When bitten by a rabid animal,
unvaccinated dogs
and cats should be destroyed immediately. If the owner
is
unwilling to have this done, the unvaccinated animal
should be
placed in strict isolation for 6 months and vaccinated
1 month
before being released. Dogs and cats that are currently
vaccinated should be revaccinated immediately and
observed by
the owner for 90 days.
Livestock. All species of livestock are susceptible to
rabies
infection; cattle appear to be among the most
susceptible of
all domestic animal species. Livestock known to have
been
bitten by rabid animals should be destroyed
(slaughtered)
immediately. If the owner is unwilling to have this
done, the
animal should be kept under very close observation for
6
months.
The following are recommendations for owners of
livestock
exposed to rabid animals:
(1) If slaughtered within 7 days of being bitten,
tissues may
be eaten without risk of infection providing
liberal
portions of the exposed area are discarded. Federal
meat
inspectors will reject for slaughter any animal
that has
been exposed to rabies within 8 months.
(2) No tissues or secretions from a clinically rabid
animal
should be used for human or animal consumption.
However, as
pasteurization temperatures will inactivate rabies
virus,
the drinking of pasteurized milk or eating of
completely
cooked meat does not constitute a rabies exposure.
Management of Animals That Bite Humans. A healthy dog or
cat that
bites a person should he confined and observed for 10 days
and
evaluated by a veterinarian at the first sign of illness
during
confinement or before release. Any illness in the animal
should be
reported immediately to the local health department. If
signs
suggestive of rabies develop, the animal should be humanely
killed
and its head removed and shipped, under refrigeration, for
examin-
ation by a qualified laboratory designated by the local or
state
health department. Any stray or unwanted dog or cat that
bites a
person may be killed immediately and the head submitted, as
described above, for rabies examination.
CONTROL METHODS IN WILD ANIMALS
Bats and wild carnivorous mammals, as well as wild animals
cross-bred
with domestic dogs and cats, that bite people should be killed
and
appropriate tissues should be sent to the laboratory for
examination
for rabies. A person bitten by a bat or any wild animal should
immedi-
ately report the incident to a physician who can evaluate the
need for
anti-rabies treatment. (See current rabies prophylaxis
recommendations
of the ACIP {1,2}).
Terrestrial Mammals. Continuous and persistent
government-funded
programs for trapping or poisoning wildlife as a means of
rabies
control are not cost effective in reducing wildlife
reservoirs or
rabies incidence on a statewide basis. However, limited
control in
high-contact areas (picnic grounds, camps, suburban areas)
may be
indicated for the removal of selected high-risk species of
wild
animals. The public should be warned not to handle wild
animals.
The state wildlife agency should be consulted early to
manage any
elimination programs in coordination with the state health
department.
Bats. Rabid bats have been reported from every state except
Hawaii
and have caused human rabies infections in the United
States. It is
neither feasible nor practical, however, to control rabies
in bats
by areawide bat population reduction programs. Bats should
be
eliminated from houses and surrounding structures to
prevent direct
association with people. Such structures should then be
made bat
proof by sealing routes of entrance with screen or other
means.
References
ACIP. Rabies prevention -- United States, 1984. MMWR
1984;33:393-402,
407-8.
ACIP. Rabies prevention: supplementary statement on the
preexposure use
of human diploid cell rabies vaccine by the intradermal route.
MMWR
1986;35:767-8.
THE NASPHV COMPENDIUM COMMITTEE: Melvin K. Abelseth, DVM, PhD,
Chairman;
Russell W. Currier, DVM, MPH; John I. Freeman, DVM, MPH; Russell J.
Martin,
DVM, MPH; Grayson B. Miller, Jr, MD; James M. Shuler, DVM, MPH; R.
Keith
Sikes, DVM, MPH.
CONSULTANTS TO THE COMMITTEE: George Baer, DVM, CDC, PHS, HHS;
Kenneth L.
Crawford, DVM, MPH; David A. Espeseth, DVM, Veterinary Biologics
Staff,
APHIS, USDA; Suzanne Jenkins, VMD, MPH; Howard Koonse,
Representative,
Veterinary Biologics Section, Animal Health Institute; Paul Waters,
Representative, Veterinary Biologics Section, Animal Health
Institute.
ENDORSED BY: Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists; AVMA
Council
on Public Health and Regulatory Veterinary Medicine.
** In regard to cats, these recommendations do not conform to the
official
recommendations of CDC and the U.S. Public Health Service. Although
domestic feline rabies has increased, there has been no evidence of
increased risk of imported rabies in cats. U.S. Foreign Quarantine
regula-
tions do not require rabies vaccinations for imported cats.
Disclaimer
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