Grace Hopper

Grace Brewster Hopper (née Murray; December 9, 1906 – January 1, 1992) was an American computer scientist, mathematician, and United States Navy rear admiral.[1] One of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, she was a pioneer of computer programming who invented one of the first linkers. Hopper was the first to devise the theory of machine-independent programming languages, and the FLOW-MATIC programming language she created using this theory was later extended to create COBOL, an early high-level programming language still in use today.

For the residential college, see Grace Hopper College. For the submarine cable, see Grace Hopper (submarine communications cable).

Grace Hopper
Photograph from 1984
Born
Grace Brewster Murray

(1906-12-09)December 9, 1906
New York City, New York, U.S.
DiedJanuary 1, 1992(1992-01-01) (aged 85)
Arlington County, Virginia, U.S.
Resting placeArlington National Cemetery
Alma materVassar College (BA)
Yale University (MS, PhD)
Spouse
Vincent Foster Hopper
​
​
(m. 1930; div. 1945)​
Awards
Military career
Allegiance United States
Service/branch United States Navy
Years of service1943–1986
Rank Rear admiral (lower half)
Known for
Scientific career
FieldsComputer science
Mathematics
Institutions
ThesisNew Types of Irreducibility Criteria (1934)
Doctoral advisorØystein Ore

Prior to joining the Navy, Hopper earned a Ph.D. in both mathematics and mathematical physics from Yale University and was a professor of mathematics at Vassar College. Hopper attempted to enlist in the Navy during World War II but was rejected because she was 34 years old. She instead joined the Navy Reserves, leaving her position at Vassar. Hopper began her computing career in 1944 when she worked on the Harvard Mark I team led by Howard H. Aiken. In 1949, she joined the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation and was part of the team that developed the UNIVAC I computer. At Eckert–Mauchly she managed the development of one of the first COBOL compilers. She believed that programming should be simplified with an English-based computer programming language. Her compiler converted English terms into machine code understood by computers. By 1952, Hopper had finished her program linker (originally called a compiler), which was written for the A-0 System.[2][3][4][5] During her wartime service, she co-authored three papers based on her work on the Harvard Mark 1. She is accredited with writing the first computer manual, “A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.”

In 1954, Eckert–Mauchly chose Hopper to lead their department for automatic programming, and she led the release of some of the first compiled languages like FLOW-MATIC. In 1959, she participated in the CODASYL consortium, which consulted Hopper to guide them in creating a machine-independent programming language. This led to the COBOL language, which was inspired by her idea of a language being based on English words. Hopper promoted use of the language throughout the 60s. In 1966, she retired from the Naval Reserve, but in 1967 the Navy recalled her to active duty. She retired from the Navy in 1986 and found work as a consultant for the Digital Equipment Corporation, sharing her computing experiences.

The U.S. Navy Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Hopper was named for her, as was the Cray XE6 "Hopper" supercomputer at NERSC.[6] During her lifetime, Hopper was awarded 40 honorary degrees from universities across the world. A college at Yale University was renamed in her honor. In 1991, she received the National Medal of Technology. On November 22, 2016, she was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.[7]

Early life and education

Grace Brewster Murray was born in New York City. She was the eldest of three children. Her parents, Walter Fletcher Murray and Mary Campbell Van Horne, were of Scottish and Dutch descent, and attended West End Collegiate Church.[8] Her great-grandfather, Alexander Wilson Russell, an admiral in the US Navy, fought in the Battle of Mobile Bay during the Civil War.[8]: 2–3 

Grace was very curious as a child; this was a lifelong trait. At the age of seven, she decided to determine how an alarm clock worked and dismantled seven alarm clocks before her mother realized what she was doing (she was then limited to one clock).[9] Later in life, she was known for keeping a clock that ran backward, she explained, “Humans are allergic to change. They love to say, ‘We’ve always done it this way.’ I try to fight that. That’s why I have a clock on my wall that runs counterclockwise.”[10] For her preparatory school education, she attended the Hartridge School in Plainfield, New Jersey. Grace was initially rejected for early admission to Vassar College at age 16 (because her test scores in Latin were too low), but she was admitted the following year. She graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Vassar in 1928 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics and earned her master's degree at Yale University in 1930.

In 1930, Grace Murray married New York University professor Vincent Foster Hopper (1906–1976); they divorced in 1945.[11][12] She did not marry again and retained his surname.

In 1934, Hopper earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale[13] under the direction of Øystein Ore.[11][14] Her dissertation, "New Types of Irreducibility Criteria",[15] was published that same year.[16] She began teaching mathematics at Vassar in 1931, and was promoted to associate professor in 1941.[17]

Career

World War II
Hopper's name on a duty roster for the Bureau of Ships Computation Project at Harvard, which built and operated the Mark I

Hopper tried to commission in the Navy early in World War II, however she was turned down. At age 34, she was too old to enlist and her weight-to-height ratio was too low. She was also denied on the basis that her job as a mathematician and mathematics professor at Vassar College was valuable to the war effort.[18] During the war in 1943, Hopper obtained a leave of absence from Vassar and was sworn into the United States Navy Reserve; she was one of many women who volunteered to serve in the WAVES.

She had to get an exemption to commission; she was 15 pounds (6.8 kg) below the Navy minimum weight of 120 pounds (54 kg). She reported in December and trained at the Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. Hopper graduated first in her class in 1944, and was assigned to the Bureau of Ships Computation Project at Harvard University as a lieutenant, junior grade. She served on the Mark I computer programming staff headed by Howard H. Aiken.

Hopper and Aiken co-authored three papers on the Mark I, also known as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. Hopper's request to transfer to the regular Navy at the end of the war was declined due to her advanced age of 38. She continued to serve in the Navy Reserve. Hopper remained at the Harvard Computation Lab until 1949, turning down a full professorship at Vassar in favor of working as a research fellow under a Navy contract at Harvard.[19]

Hopper in a computer room in Washington, D.C., 1978, photographed by Lynn Gilbert

UNIVAC

In 1949, Hopper became an employee of the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation as a senior mathematician and joined the team developing the UNIVAC I.[17] Hopper also served as UNIVAC director of Automatic Programming Development for Remington Rand. The UNIVAC was the first known large-scale electronic computer to be on the market in 1950, and was more competitive at processing information than the Mark I.[20]

When Hopper recommended the development of a new programming language that would use entirely English words, she "was told very quickly that [she] couldn't do this because computers didn't understand English." Still, she persisted. "It's much easier for most people to write an English statement than it is to use symbols," she explained. "So I decided data processors ought to be able to write their programs in English, and the computers would translate them into machine code."[21]

Her idea was not accepted for three years. In the meantime, she published her first paper on the subject, compilers, in 1952. In the early 1950s, the company was taken over by the Remington Rand corporation, and it was while she was working for them that her original compiler work was done. The program was known as the A compiler and its first version was A-0.[22]: 11 

In 1952, she had an operational link-loader, which at the time was referred to as a compiler. She later said that "Nobody believed that," and that she "had a running compiler and nobody would touch it. They told me computers could only do arithmetic."[23]

In 1954 Hopper was named the company's first director of automatic programming.[17] Beginning in 1954, Hopper's work was influenced by the Laning and Zierler system, which was the first compiler to accept algebraic notation as input.[24] Her department released some of the first compiler-based programming languages, including MATH-MATIC and FLOW-MATIC.[17]

Hopper said that her compiler A-0, "translated mathematical notation into machine code. Manipulating symbols was fine for mathematicians but it was no good for data processors who were not symbol manipulators. Very few people are really symbol manipulators. If they are, they become professional mathematicians, not data processors. It's much easier for most people to write an English statement than it is to use symbols. So I decided data processors ought to be able to write their programs in English, and the computers would translate them into machine code. That was the beginning of COBOL, a computer language for data processors. I could say 'Subtract income tax from pay' instead of trying to write that in octal code or using all kinds of symbols. COBOL is the major language used today in data processing."[25]

COBOL
Hopper at the UNIVAC I console, c. 1960

In the spring of 1959, computer experts from industry and government were brought together in a two-day conference known as the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL). Hopper served as a technical consultant to the committee, and many of her former employees served on the short-term committee that defined the new language COBOL (an acronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Language). The new language extended Hopper's FLOW-MATIC language with some ideas from the IBM equivalent, COMTRAN. Hopper's belief that programs should be written in a language that was close to English (rather than in machine code or in languages close to machine code, such as assembly languages) was captured in the new business language, and COBOL went on to be the most ubiquitous business language to date.[26] Among the members of the committee that worked on COBOL was Mount Holyoke College alumna Jean E. Sammet.[27]

From 1967 to 1977, Hopper served as the director of the Navy Programming Languages Group in the Navy's Office of Information Systems Planning and was promoted to the rank of captain in 1973. She developed validation software for COBOL and its compiler as part of a COBOL standardization program for the entire Navy.[19]

Standards

In the 1970s, Hopper advocated for the Defense Department to replace large, centralized systems with networks of small, distributed computers. Any user on any computer node could access common databases located on the network.[22]: 119  She developed the implementation of standards for testing computer systems and components, most significantly for early programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL. The Navy tests for conformance to these standards led to significant convergence among the programming language dialects of the major computer vendors. In the 1980s, these tests (and their official administration) were assumed by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), known today as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Retirement
Hopper being promoted to the rank of commodore in 1983

In accordance with Navy attrition regulations, Hopper retired from the Naval Reserve with the rank of commander at age 60 at the end of 1966.[28] She was recalled to active duty in August 1967 for a six-month period that turned into an indefinite assignment. She again retired in 1971 but was again asked to return to active duty in 1972. She was promoted to captain in 1973 by Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr.[29]

After Republican Representative Philip Crane saw her on a March 1983 segment of 60 Minutes, he championed H.J.Res. 341, a joint resolution originating in the House of Representatives to promote Hopper to commodore on the retired list; the resolution was referred to, but not reported out of, the Senate Armed Services Committee.[30] Hopper was instead promoted to commodore on December 15, 1983 via the Appointments Clause by President Ronald Reagan.[31][29][32][33][34] She remained on active duty for several years beyond mandatory retirement by special approval of Congress.[35] Effective November 8, 1985, the rank of commodore was renamed rear admiral (lower half) and Hopper became one of the Navy's few female admirals.

Following a career that spanned more than 42 years, Rear Admiral Hopper took retirement from the Navy on August 14, 1986.[36] At the time, she was the oldest serving member of the Navy. At a celebration held in Boston on the USS Constitution to commemorate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest non-combat decoration awarded by the Department of Defense.[37]

At the time of her retirement, she was the oldest active-duty commissioned officer in the United States Navy (79 years, eight months and five days), and had her retirement ceremony aboard the oldest commissioned ship in the United States Navy (188 years, nine months and 23 days).[38]

Admirals William D. Leahy, Chester W. Nimitz, Hyman G. Rickover and Charles Stewart were the only other officers in the Navy's history to serve on active duty at a higher age. Leahy and Nimitz served on active duty for life due to their promotions to the rank of fleet admiral.

Admiral Hopper was the first ever person to be profiled twice on 60 Minutes, first in March 1983, and the second on August 24, 1986.

Post-retirement

Following her retirement from the Navy, she was hired as a senior consultant to Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Hopper was initially offered a position by Rita Yavinsky, but she insisted on going through the typical formal interview process. She then proposed in jest that she would be willing to accept a position which made her available on alternating Thursdays, exhibited at their museum of computing as a pioneer, in exchange for a generous salary and unlimited expense account. Instead, she was hired as a full-time Principal Corporate Consulting Engineer, a tech-track SVP-equivalent. In this position, Hopper represented the company at industry forums, serving on various industry committees, along with other obligations.[39] She retained that position until her death at age 85 in 1992.

At DEC Hopper served primarily as a goodwill ambassador. She lectured widely about the early days of computing, her career, and on efforts that computer vendors could take to make life easier for their users. She visited most of Digital's engineering facilities, where she generally received a standing ovation at the conclusion of her remarks. Although no longer a serving officer, she always wore her Navy full dress uniform to these lectures contrary to U.S. Department of Defense policy.[40] In 2016 Hopper received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor, in recognition of her remarkable contributions to the field of computer science.

"The most important thing I've accomplished, other than building the compiler," she said, "is training young people. They come to me, you know, and say, 'Do you think we can do this?' I say, 'Try it.' And I back 'em up. They need that. I keep track of them as they get older and I stir 'em up at intervals so they don't forget to take chances."[41]

Anecdotes
Log book showing the "bug" found caught in a Mark II relay

Throughout much of her later career, Hopper was much in demand as a speaker at various computer-related events. She was well known for her lively and irreverent speaking style, as well as a rich treasury of early war stories. She also received the nickname "Grandma COBOL".[42]

While Hopper was working on a Mark II Computer at Harvard University in 1947,[43] her associates discovered a moth that was stuck in a relay and impeding the operation of the computer. Upon extraction, the insect was affixed to a log sheet for that day with the notation, “First actual case of bug being found”. While neither she nor her crew members mentioned the exact phrase, "debugging", in their log entries, the case is held as a historical instance of "debugging" a computer and Hopper is credited with popularizing the term in computing. For many decades, the term "bug" for a malfunction had been in use in several fields before being applied to computers.[44][45] The remains of the moth can be found taped into the group's log book at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.[43]

Hopper became known for her nanoseconds visual aid. People (such as generals and admirals) used to ask her why satellite communication took so long. She started handing out pieces of wire that were just under one foot long—11.8 inches (30 cm)—the distance that light travels in one nanosecond. She gave these pieces of wire the metonym "nanoseconds."[34] She was careful to tell her audience that the length of her nanoseconds was actually the maximum distance the signals would travel in a vacuum, and that signals would travel more slowly through the actual wires that were her teaching aids. Later she used the same pieces of wire to illustrate why computers had to be small to be fast. At many of her talks and visits, she handed out "nanoseconds" to everyone in the audience, contrasting them with a coil of wire 984 feet (300 meters) long,[46] representing a microsecond. Later, while giving these lectures while working for DEC, she passed out packets of pepper, calling the individual grains of ground pepper picoseconds.[47]

Jay Elliot described Grace Hopper as appearing to be "'all Navy', but when you reach inside, you find a 'Pirate' dying to be released."[48]

Death

On New Year's Day 1992, Hopper died in her sleep of natural causes at her home in Arlington County, Virginia;[49] she was 85 years of age. She was interred with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery.[50]

Dates of rank
Rank Midshipman
MIDN		 Lieutenant junior grade
O-2		 Lieutenant
O-3		 Lieutenant commander
O-4		 Commander
O-5		 Captain
O-6		 Commodore/
Rear admiral (lower half)
O-7
Insignia N/A
Date May 4, 1944[51] June 27, 1944[51] June 1, 1946[51] April 1, 1952[51] July 1, 1957[51][n 1] August 2, 1973[51] December 15, 1983[33]/
redesignated November 8, 1985[52]

Awards and honors

Military awards
Bronze star
Defense Distinguished Service Medal
(1986)		 Legion of Merit
(1967)		 Meritorious Service Medal
(1980)
Presidential Medal of Freedom
(2016, Posthumous)		 American Campaign Medal
(1944)		 World War II Victory Medal
(1945)
National Defense Service Medal
with bronze service star
(1953, 1966)		 Armed Forces Reserve Medal
with two bronze hourglass devices
(1963, 1973, 1983)		 Naval Reserve Medal
(1953)

Other awards

Legacy

Places
  • Grace Hopper Avenue in Monterey, California, is the location of the Navy's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center[85] as well as the National Weather Service's San Francisco Bay Area forecast office.[86]
  • Grace M. Hopper Navy Regional Data Automation Center at Naval Air Station, North Island, California.[87]
  • Grace Murray Hopper Park, located on South Joyce Street in Arlington County, Virginia, is a small memorial park in front of her former residence (River House Apartments) and is now owned by Arlington County, Virginia.[88]
  • Brewster Academy, a school located in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, United States, dedicated their computer lab to her in 1985, calling it the Grace Murray Hopper Center for Computer Learning.[29] The academy bestows a Grace Murray Hopper Prize to a graduate who excelled in the field of computer systems.[89] Hopper had spent her childhood summers at a family home in Wolfeboro.
  • Grace Hopper College, one of the residential colleges of Yale University.[90]
  • An administration building on Naval Support Activity Annapolis (previously known as Naval Station Annapolis) in Annapolis, Maryland is named the Grace Hopper Building in her honor.[29]
  • Hopper Hall is Naval Academy’s newest academic building that houses its cyber science department, among others. It is the first building at any service academy named after a woman.[91]
  • The US Naval Academy also owns a Cray XC-30 supercomputer named "Grace," hosted at the University of Maryland-College Park.[92]
  • Building 1482 aboard Naval Air Station North Island, housing the Naval Computer and Telecommunication Station San Diego, is named the Grace Hopper Building, and also contains the History of Naval Communications Museum.[93]
  • Building 6007, C2/CNT West in Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, is named after her.[94]
  • The street outside of the Nathan Deal Georgia Cyber Innovation and Training Center in Augusta, Georgia, is named Grace Hopper Lane.[95]
  • Grace Hopper Academy is a for-profit immersive programming school in New York City named in Grace Hopper's honor. It opened in January 2016 with the goal of increasing the proportion of women in software engineering careers.[96][97]
  • A bridge over Goose Creek, to join the north and south sides of the Naval Support Activity Charleston side of Joint Base Charleston, South Carolina, is named the Grace Hopper Memorial Bridge in her honor.[98]
  • Minor planet 5773 Hopper discovered by Eleanor Helin is named in her honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 November 2019 (M.P.C. 117229).[99]
  • Grace Hopper Hall, a community meeting hall in Orlando, Florida (located on the site of the former Orlando Naval Training Center) is named for her.[100]
  • The United States Naval Academy dedicated Hopper Hall, their cyber, computer science, and computer engineering building, to RDML Hopper in 2020, and it opened to midshipmen in the spring of 2021.

Programs
  • In his comic book series, Secret Coders by Gene Luen Yang, the main character is named Hopper Gracie-Hu.[105]
  • Since 2013, Hopper's official portrait has been included in the matplotlib python library as sample data to replace the controversial Lenna image.[106]

Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing

Her legacy was an inspiring factor in the creation of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing.[107] Held yearly, this conference is designed to bring the research and career interests of women in computing to the forefront.[108]

See also

Notes
  1. On the retired list from December 31, 1966 to August 1, 1967 and from 1971–1972.[51]

References
  1. Cantrell, Mark (March 1, 2014). "Amazing Grace: Rear Adm. Grace Hopper, USN, was a pioneer in computer science". Military Officer. Vol. 12, no. 3. Military Officers Association of America. pp. 52–55, 106. Retrieved March 1, 2014.
  2. Donald D. Spencer (1985). Computers and Information Processing. C.E. Merrill Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-675-20290-9.
  3. Laplante, Phillip A. (2001). Dictionary of computer science, engineering, and technology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-2691-2.
  4. Bunch, Bryan H.; Hellemans, Alexander (1993). The Timetables of Technology: A Chronology of the Most Important People and Events in the History of Technology. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-76918-5.
  5. Booss-Bavnbek, Bernhelm; Høyrup, Jens (2003). Mathematics and War. Birkhäuser Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7643-1634-1.
  6. "Hopper". National Energ Research Scientific Computing Center. Archived from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
  7. Carson, Erin (November 23, 2016). "White House honors two of tech's female pioneers". CBS News. Retrieved November 23, 2016.
  8. Williams, Kathleen (2004). Grace Hopper: Admiral of the Cyber Sea. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-61251-265-5.
  9. Dickason, Elizabeth (April 1992). "Looking Back: Grace Murray Hopper's Younger Years". Chips.
  10. "Women's History Month: Which Women Engineers Have Succeeded by Breaking the Rules? - All Together". March 29, 2021. Retrieved October 25, 2023.
  11. Green, Judy; LaDuke, Jeanne (2009). Pioneering Women in American Mathematics: The Pre-1940 PhD's. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-4376-5. Biography on p.281-289 of the Supplementary Material at AMS
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  13. "Grace Hopper". womenshistory.org. National Women's History Museum. Retrieved July 11, 2018.
  14. Though some books, including Kurt Beyer's Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age, reported that Hopper was the first woman to earn a Yale PhD in mathematics, the first of ten women prior to 1934 was Charlotte Cynthia Barnum (1860–1934). Murray, Margaret A. M. (May–June 2010). "The first lady of math?". Yale Alumni Magazine. Vol. 73, no. 5. pp. 5–6. ISSN 0044-0051.
  15. Murray Hopper, Grace (1934). "New Types of Irreducibility Criteria" (PDF). American Mathematical Society (Thesis). New Haven, CT: Yale University. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2020.
  16. G. M. Hopper and O. Ore, "New types of irreducibility criteria," Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 40 (1934) 216 "New types of irreducibility criteria". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 40 (3): 209–234. 1934. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1934-05818-X.
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  20. Ann., Camp, Carole (2004). American women inventors. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7660-1538-8. OCLC 48398924.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  25. Gilbert, Lynn (1981). Women of Wisdom: Grace Murray Hopper. Lynn Gilbert, Inc.
  26. Beyer, Kurt W. (2009). Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01310-9.
  27. Lohr, Steve (June 4, 2017). "Jean Sammet, Co-Designer of a Pioneering Computer Language, Dies at 89". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022. Retrieved April 5, 2023.
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  30. "H.J.Res.341 - A joint resolution authorizing and requesting the President to appoint Captain Grace M. Hopper (United States Naval Reserve, Retired) to the grade of commodore on the retired list". U.S. Congress. Retrieved July 30, 2023.
  31. "PN538 — Grace Hopper — Navy, 98th Congress (1983-1984)". U.S. Congress. Retrieved July 30, 2023.
  32. "Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper, USNR, (1906–1992) Informal Images taken during the 1980s". Biographies in Naval History. United States Navy Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved July 2, 2013. Commodore Grace M. Hopper, USNR. receives congratulations from President Ronald Reagan, following her promotion from the rank of Captain to Commodore in ceremonies at the White House, 15 December 1983
  33. "Historic Images of Ronald Reagan". U.S. Defense Department. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved March 7, 2016. President Ronald Reagan greets Navy Capt. Grace Hopper as she arrives at the White House for her promotion to Commodore, Dec. 15, 1983. Hopper was a computer technology pioneer
  34. "Late Night with David Letterman". Late Night with David Letterman. Season 5. Episode 771. New York City. October 2, 1986. NBC. "[to President Ronald Reagan on her promotion] Sir ... I'm older than you are ... YouTube title: Grace Hopper on Letterman
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  40. "32 CFR § 53.2 – Policy". Legal Information Institute. Cornell University. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
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  44. Edison to Puskas, November 13, 1878, Edison papers, Edison National Laboratory, U.S. National Park Service, West Orange, N.J., cited in Thomas P. Hughes, American Genesis: A History of the American Genius for Invention, Penguin Books, 1989, ISBN 0-14-009741-4, on page 75.
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  53. "First Ladies". SWE Philadelphia Section. Retrieved March 27, 2020.
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Obituary notices

Further reading
  • Beyer, Kurt W. (September 30, 2009). Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age (1st ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01310-9.
  • Marx, Christy (August 2003). Grace Hopper: the first woman to program the first computer in the United States. Women hall of famers in mathematics and science (1st ed.). New York City: Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3877-3.
  • Norman, Rebecca (June 1997). "Biographies of Women Mathematicians: Grace Murray Hopper". Agnes Scott College. Retrieved November 17, 2014.
  • Williams, Kathleen Broome (November 15, 2004). Grace Hopper: Admiral of the Cyber Sea (1st ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-952-9.
  • Williams, Kathleen Broome (2001). Improbable Warriors: Women Scientists and the U.S. Navy in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-961-1. Williams' book focuses on the lives and contributions of four notable women scientists: Mary Sears (1905–1997); Florence van Straten (1913–1992); Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992); Mina Spiegel Rees (1902–1997).
  • Ignotofsky, Rachel (2017). Women in Science: 50 fearless pioneers who changed the world. London: Wren & Rook. ISBN 978-1-9848-5615-9.
  • Vining, Margaret (2012). "Reviewed work: Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age, Kurt W. Beyer". Technology and Culture. 53 (2): 516–517. doi:10.1353/tech.2012.0051. JSTOR 41475535. S2CID 111125455.
  • Williams, Kathleen Broome (1999). "Scientists in Uniform: The Harvard Computation Laboratory in World War II". Naval War College Review. 52 (3): 90–110. JSTOR 44643011.
  • Billings, Charlene (1989). Grace Hopper : Navy admiral and computer pioneer. Enslow Publishers. ISBN 0-89490-194-X.
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