Almirante Latorre-class battleship

On 6 July 1910, the National Congress of Chile passed a bill allocating funds for six destroyers, two submarines, and two large battleships, later named Almirante Latorre and Almirante Cochrane.[18][upper-alpha 4] Even before the decision was officially announced, the United Kingdom was widely viewed as the only country with a chance of landing the contract. The Chilean Navy had enjoyed a long-standing close relationship with its British counterpart, the Royal Navy, since the 1830s, when Chilean naval officers were given places on British ships to receive training and experience they could bring back to their country. This relationship had recently been cemented when a British naval mission was requested by Chile and sent in 1911.[20]

Still, the United States made a push to have the orders placed in an American shipyard. The American government sent Henry Prather Fletcher to be the new minister to Chile in September 1910. Fletcher had successfully implemented President William Howard Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy" policy in China.[13] He met with resistance, which he attributed to lingering sentiment from the 1891 Baltimore Crisis: "My advances in the matter have not been met with frankness or encouragement and I feel a spirit of covert opposition. Under a very polite and courteous exterior there still exists a feeling of soreness towards us."[21] The US naval attaché opined that, barring anything short of a revolution, the contracts would be given to the British. Indeed, the bidding process specified ships very close to the armament and armor mounted on recent British warships. Fletcher asked for an extension to the bidding process so that American shipbuilding firms could tailor proposals to these requirements, and this was granted.[13]

During this time, Germany announced plans to send the battlecruiser Von der Tann on a South American cruise. As the ship was "widely advertised as the fastest and most powerful warship then afloat,"[21] the United States and United Kingdom felt its presence might give German companies an advantage in potential armament contracts, so they sent ships of their own. The United States sent the new battleship Delaware on a ten-week excursion to Brazil and Chile, carrying the body of the recently deceased Chilean minister, Anibal Cruz, to the United States; the British responded with an armored cruiser squadron. Delaware's captain was ordered to give the Chileans full access to the vessel—the only exception being that he should not give full particulars of the new fire-control system[22]—in an attempt by the Navy Department "to aid the shipbuilding interests of the country [United States] to make contracts for the building of men-of-war for foreign countries."[23] As a further incentive, the US indicated its willingness to provide a $25 million loan to support the purchase of the ship.[24]

The American battleship USS Delaware was sent to Brazil and Chile in early 1911 as part of a concentrated effort to obtain the battleship contracts for American shipyards.

In the event, the efforts made by the United States came to little. The final decision came down to a choice between the American and British tenders,[25] and with a loan from the Rothchilds, Chile awarded one battleship contract to the latter's Armstrong Whitworth on 25 July 1911.[24] The design was drawn up by J.R. Perret, who had also designed Brazil's Rio de Janeiro.[26][upper-alpha 5] The United States still hoped that Chile would order American 14-inch/50 caliber guns for the battleship's main battery armament, but orders came only for coastal artillery. The second dreadnought was awarded to Armstrong in June 1912.[29] Six Almirante Lynch-class destroyers were ordered in 1911 from J. Samuel White to accompany the new dreadnoughts.[30] Before construction began, the Almirante Latorre design was enlarged to mount sixteen 6-inch (152 mm) rather than twenty-two 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns. This increased the displacement by 600 long tons (610 t), to 28,000 long tons (28,449 t), the draft by 6.5 inches (170 mm), to 33 feet (10 m), and made the ship a quarter-knot slower, to 22.75 knots.[31]

Officially ordered on 2 November 1911 and laid down less than a month later on 27 November,[19][32] the first dreadnought became the largest ship that Armstrong had built.[33] The second dreadnought was ordered on 29 July 1912 and laid down on 22 January 1913,[19] delayed by Rio de Janeiro occupying the slipway in which it would be built.[26] The New York Tribune (2 November 1913) and Proceedings (May and June 1914) reported that Greece had reached an accord to purchase the first battleship counterbalance the Ottoman Empire's acquisition of Rio de Janeiro from Brazil,[34][35] but despite a developing sentiment within Chile to sell one or both of the dreadnoughts, no deal was made.[36][37][upper-alpha 6]

Almirante Latorre was launched first, on 27 November 1913,[39][40][upper-alpha 7] in an elaborate ceremony that was attended by various dignitaries and presided over by Chile's ambassador to the United Kingdom, Agustín Edwards Mac Clure. The battleship was christened by the ambassador's wife, Olga Budge de Edwards,[18] and weighed 10,700 long tons (10,900 t) at the time.[41] After the First World War broke out in Europe, work on Almirante Latorre was halted in August 1914,[31] and it was formally purchased on 9 September after the British Cabinet recommended it four days earlier.[19][28][42][43] Almirante Latorre was not forcibly seized like the Ottoman Reşadiye and Sultân Osmân-ı Evvel (ex-Rio de Janeiro), two other ships being built for a foreign navy, because of Chile's "friendly neutral" status with the United Kingdom.[28] The former Chilean ship was completed on 30 September 1915,[19] and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 15 October.[39] Work on the other ship, Almirante Cochrane, was halted after the outbreak of war. The British purchased it on 28 February 1918 to be converted to an aircraft carrier, as the partially completed ship was the only available large and fast hull capable of being modified into a full flush-deck carrier. Low priority and quarrels with shipyard workers slowed completion of the ship.[44]

Almirante Latorre was renamed HMS Canada and slightly modified for British service.[39] The ship completed fitting-out on 20 September 1915,[19][28] and was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 15 October. It initially served with the 4th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet, and saw action in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916. It fired 42 rounds from its 14-inch guns and 109 6-inch shells during the battle, and suffered no hits or casualties. Canada was transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron on 12 June 1916, received further modifications in 1917 and 1918, and was put into reserve in March 1919.[39]

Inflexible would have been one of two Invincible-class battlecruisers sold to Chile, but monetary considerations and significant opposition prevented their purchase.

After the end of the war in Europe, Chile began to seek additional ships to bolster its fleet, and the United Kingdom eagerly offered many of its surplus warships. This action worried the nations of South America, who feared that a Chilean attempt to regain the title of "the first naval power in South America"[45] would destabilize the region and start another naval arms race.[46] Chile asked for Almirante Cochrane in addition to Canada, but would not purchase the ship unless it was reconstructed into the original battleship configuration. The British halted work on the incomplete ship while seriously considering the offer in October 1919. But because of the increased cost of reconverting her—£2.5 million, compared to a potential profit of £1.5 million from selling her—and a desire to test the aircraft carrier concept and especially the viability of island superstructures, the British kept and completed the ship, as HMS Eagle.[44][47]

In April 1920, Chile only bought Canada and four destroyers, all of which had been ordered by Chile prior to the war's outbreak and requisitioned by the British for the war.[46] Planned replacements for Almirante Cochrane included the two remaining Invincible-class battlecruisers, but a leak to the press of the secret negotiations to acquire them caused an uproar. The most visible dissension came from a block of officers in the navy who publicly opposed any possible purchase and instead promoted a "New Navy" which would acquire submarines and airplanes. They argued that these weapons would cost less and give the country, and its lengthy coastline, better protection from external threats. The ships were not bought for reasons of cost, but neither were the airplanes its supporters had been hoping for.[48]

Almirante Latorre in Chilean service

Main article: Chilean battleship Almirante Latorre

Almirante Latorre in the 1930s.

Canada was renamed Almirante Latorre once again and formally handed over to the Chilean government on 27 November 1920.[39] It departed Plymouth the same day with two of the destroyers,[49] and they arrived in Chile on 20 February 1921, where they were welcomed by Chile's president, Arturo Alessandri. Almirante Latorre was made the flagship of the navy.[18] The dreadnought was frequently used by Alessandri for various functions, including as transport to Vallenar after a 1922 earthquake,[18][50] and to Talcahuano for the grand opening of a new naval drydock in 1924.[18] In 1925, with the fall of the January Junta, the ship hosted Alessandri after his return from exile. In September, the last month of his term, Alessandri received the United Kingdom's Edward, Prince of Wales, on board the battleship.[48]

Almirante Latorre was sent to the United Kingdom for a modernization at the Devonport Dockyard in 1929. It lasted for quite some time, but finally left for Valparaíso nearly two years later, on 5 March 1931, and arrived on 12 April.[51] Not long after it returned, crewmembers aboard Almirante Latorre instigated a major mutiny. The revolt was a result of the country's economic woes in the midst of the Great Depression and a recent pay cut. Most of the navy's ships joined Almirante Latorre in the mutiny, but they surrendered five days after it began when an air strike was mounted by government forces. Almirante Latorre ended up in the Bay of Tongoy with Blanco Encalada.[52][53][54]

With Chile still in the midst of the depression, Almirante Latorre was deactivated at Talcahuano in 1933 to lessen government expenditures,[55] and only a caretaker crew was assigned to tend to the mothballed ship into the mid-1930s.[56][upper-alpha 8] Soon after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States approached Chile with the aim of purchasing Almirante Latorre, two destroyers, and a submarine tender to bolster the United States Navy, but the offer was declined.[58][59] Almirante Latorre was used during the Second World War for Chilean neutrality patrols.[39] The ship remained active until 1951, when an accident in its engine room killed three crewmen. Moored at Talcahuano, the battleship became a storage facility for fuel oil.[51] It was decommissioned in October 1958, and was sold in February 1959 to be broken up for scrap in Japan.[18][19] Almirante Latorre was taken under tow by the tug Cambrian Salvos on 29 May 1959,[18][51] and reached Yokohama, Japan, at the end of August,[39][51][60][upper-alpha 9] though the scrapping process did not begin immediately on arrival.[39]

Almirante Cochrane/Eagle in British service

Main article: HMS Eagle (1918)

Eagle in the Mediterranean, where it would be sunk in August 1942.

Eagle was used for trials throughout 1920. As the concept of aircraft carriers was still very new, the lessons learned were incorporated in a 1921–23 refit. Its official sea trials were conducted in September 1923, and it was commissioned on 26 February 1924. The new ship was sent to the Mediterranean Fleet in June, and alternated between refits in the United Kingdom (1926, 1929) and the Mediterranean until 1931, when Eagle was sent to show the flag on a South American cruise. Between its major refits in 1931–32 and 1936, Eagle was sent to the China Station before rotating back to the Mediterranean. After 1936, it was sent back to the Far East, and was there when the Second World War broke out in September 1939. For the next seven months, Eagle was used for anti-raider patrols, but when one of its own aircraft bombs exploded on board in March 1940, the carrier was forced to sail to Singapore for repairs. Soon after, Eagle was again moved to the Mediterranean, where it protected convoys until May 1941, when it was sent to Gibraltar. The ship spent the next several months in the South Atlantic, on guard against German raiders.[61]

In September, a major fire severely damaged Eagle, so it was sent back to the United Kingdom. The refit lasted from October 1941 to February 1942, and it was quickly sent to reinforce Force H. It was employed to ferry fighters to Malta in attempts to keep the besieged island under British control. As part of this duty, it was used to cover a convoy in August 1942 (Operation Pedestal); during the voyage, Eagle was sunk in four minutes by four torpedoes from the German submarine U-73.[62]

Almirante Latorre was the last South American dreadnought built, and was larger and better armed than its counterparts in Brazil and Argentina. The more efficient arrangement of the five 14-inch turrets, with all mounted on the centerline rather than en echelon, allowed the main battery to fire on a single broadside without damaging the ship.[28][63]

Almirante Latorre closely resembled the British Iron Duke class, the major difference being that the Chilean ship was longer, had less forecastle but more quarterdeck, and had larger funnels along with an aft mast. The ship was 28,100 long tons (28,600 t) standard and 31,610 long tons (32,120 t) at full load. At 661 feet (201 m) overall, it was 39 feet (12 m) longer than the Iron Duke-class; it had a beam of 92 feet (28 m) and a mean draft of 29 feet (8.8 m).[28]

The ship's main battery was composed of ten 14-inch/45 caliber guns mounted in five dual turrets. The arrangement was the same as for the Iron Duke class, with two turrets superfiring forward and a single turret amidships separated from the aft superfiring pair by superstructure and a mast. Built by the Elswick Ordnance Company, the guns were able to fire a 1,586-pound (719 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1507 ft/s (764 m/s) to a maximum range of 24,400 yards (22,300 m). They were able to depress to −5° and elevate to 20°.[64] Fourteen of these guns were manufactured, ten mounted on Almirante Latorre and four kept for use as spares. The latter were kept by the United Kingdom after the sale to Chile and scrapped in 1922,[65] while those built for Almirante Cochrane were at least originally kept for potential later use on Almirante Latorre.[66] The secondary battery was originally composed of sixteen 6-inch Mark XI, two 3-inch 20 cwt anti-aircraft guns, four 3-pounders, and four submerged 21-inch torpedo tubes. The two 6-inch guns located farthest aft were removed in 1916, as they were affected by blast damage from the amidships 14-inch turret.[41][67] During the 1929 refit in the United Kingdom, four additional anti-aircraft guns were placed in the aft superstructure.[28][64]

Almirante Latorre was powered by steam turbines manufactured by Brown–Curtis and Parsons, which put out 37,000 shaft horsepower, and 21 Yarrow boilers. Together, these turned four propellers which drove the ship through the water at a maximum speed of 22.75 knots (26.18 mph; 42.13 km/h). 3,300 metric tons (3,200 long tons) of coal and 520 metric tons (510 long tons) of oil could be carried, giving the ship a maximum theoretical range of 4,400 nautical miles (5,100 mi; 8,100 km) at 10 knots (12 mph; 19 km/h).[28]

The battleship's armor was composed of a 9-to-4-inch (229 to 102 mm) belt, 4.5-to-3-inch (114 to 76 mm) bulkheads, 10-to-4-inch (254 to 102 mm) barbettes, 10-inch (254 mm) turret faces, a 4-to-3-inch (102 to 76 mm) turret roof, a 11-inch (280 mm) conning tower, and 4-to-1-inch (102 to 25 mm) armoured decks.[28]

• Brown, David. "HMS Eagle." In Profile Warship, edited by Antony Preston, 249–272. Windsor, United Kingdom: Profile Publishing, 1973. ISSN 1754-4459. OCLC 249286023.
• Burt, R. A. British Battleships of World War One. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1986. ISBN 0-87021-863-8. OCLC 14224148.
• Campbell, John. Naval Weapons of World War II. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1985. ISBN 0-87021-459-4. OCLC 13085151.
• English, Adrian J. Armed Forces of Latin America. London: Jane's Publishing Inc., 1984. ISBN 0-7106-0321-5. OCLC 11537114.
• Gardiner, Robert and Randal Gray, eds. Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1985. ISBN 0-87021-907-3. OCLC 12119866.
• Garrett, James L. "The Beagle Channel Dispute: Confrontation and Negotiation in the Southern Cone." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 27, no. 3 (1985): 81–109. JSTOR 165601. ISSN 0022-1937. OCLC 2239844.
• Gill, C.C. "Professional Notes." Proceedings 40, no. 1 (1914): 186–272. OCLC 2496995.
•  ———. "Professional Notes." Proceedings 40, no. 2 (1914): 495–618. OCLC 2496995.
•  ———. "Professional Notes." Proceedings 40, no. 3 (1914): 835–947. OCLC 2496995.
• Hough, Richard. The Big Battleship. Cornwall, United Kingdom: Periscope Publishing, 2003. First published 1966 by Michael Joseph. ISBN 1-904381-14-6. OCLC 8898108.
• Kaldis, William Peter. "Background for Conflict: Greece, Turkey, and the Aegean Islands, 1912–1914." Journal of Modern History 51, no. 2 (1979): D1119–D1146. OCLC 62219150.
• Parkes, Oscar. British Battleships. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990. First published 1957 by Seeley Service. ISBN 1-55750-075-4. OCLC 22240716.
• Preston, Antony. "Great Britain." In Gardiner and Gray, Conway's, 1–104.
• Livermore, Seward W. "Battleship Diplomacy in South America: 1905–1925." Journal of Modern History 16, no. 1 (1944): 31–48. OCLC 62219150.
• Sater, William F. "The Abortive Kronstadt: The Chilean Naval Mutiny of 1931." Hispanic American Historical Review 60, no. 2 (1980): 239–68. OCLC 421498310.
• Scheina, Robert L. "Argentina." In Gardiner and Gray, Conway's, 400–403.
•  ———. "Brazil." In Gardiner and Gray, Conway's, 403–407.
•  ———. "Chile." In Gardiner and Gray, Conway's, 407–409.
•  ———. Latin America: A Naval History 1810–1987. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-295-8. OCLC 15696006.
•  ———. Latin America's Wars. Washington, DC: Brassey's, 2003. ISBN 1-57488-452-2. OCLC 49942250.
• Somervell, Philip. "Naval Affairs in Chilean Politics, 1910–1932." Journal of Latin American Studies 16, no. 2 (1984): 381–402. OCLC 47076058.
• "The Status of South American Navies," Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers 21, no. 1 (1909): 254–57. OCLC 3227025.
• Topliss, David. "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts, 1904–1914." Warship International 25, no. 3 (1988): 240–289. ISSN 0043-0374. OCLC 1647131.
• Vanterpool, Alan. "The Riachuleo." Warship International 6, no. 2 (1969): 140–141.
• Whitley, M.J. Battleships of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998. ISBN 1-55750-184-X. OCLC 40834665.

• Sturton, Ian. "Battleship End-notes: Almirante Latorre." In Warship 2006, edited by John Jordan, 124–125. London: Conway Maritime Press, 2006. ISBN 1844860302. OCLC 64315089.

• Acorazado "Almirante Latorre" 1°, Unidades Historicas, Armada de Chile.
• Media related to Almirante Latorre-class battleship at Wikimedia Commons