History of Asian Americans

Asian American history is the history of ethnic and racial groups in the United States who are of Asian descent. The term "Asian American" was an idea invented in the 1960s to bring together Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino Americans for strategic political purposes. Soon other groups of Asian origin, such as Korean, Vietnamese, Iu Mien, Hmong, and South Asian Americans were added.[1] For example, while many Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino immigrants arrived as unskilled workers in significant numbers from 1850 to 1905 and largely settled in Hawaii and California, many Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Hmong Americans arrived in the United States as refugees following the Vietnam War. These separate histories have often been overlooked in conventional frameworks of Asian American history.[2]

This article is part of a series on the
History of the
United States
Asian American woman, 1921
Timeline and periods
Prehistoric and Pre-Columbian Erauntil 1607
Colonial Era 1607–1765
1776–1789
    American Revolution 1765–1783
    Confederation Period 1783–1788
1789–1849
    Federalist Era 1788–1801
    Jeffersonian Era1801–1817
    Era of Good Feelings 1817–1825
    Jacksonian Era1825–1849
1849–1865
    Civil War Era 1849–1865
1865–1918
    Reconstruction Era 1865–1877
    Gilded Age 1877–1896
    Progressive Era 1896–1917
1918–1945
    World War I 1917–1918
    Roaring Twenties 1918–1929
    Great Depression 1929–1941
    World War II 1941–1945
1945–1964
    Post-World War II Era 1945–1964
    Civil Rights Era 1954–1968
1964–1980
    Civil Rights Era 1954–1968
    Vietnam War 1964–1975
1980–1991
    Reagan Era 1981–1991
1991–2008
    Post-Cold War Era 1991–2008
2008–present
    Modern Era2008–present
Topics
Groups
Places
Territorial evolution
Regions
States
Territories
Cities

Since 1965, shifting immigration patterns have resulted in a higher proportion of highly educated Asian immigrants entering the United States.[3] This image of success is often referred to as the "model minority" myth.[4] For the contemporary situation, see Asian Americans.

Hostility to immigration
Main articles: Asian immigration to the United States, History of immigration to the United States, Nativism (politics) § United States, Nativism in United States politics § Asian targets, Racism in the United States § Asian Americans, and Xenophobia in the United States § Asian targets

The Chinese arrived in the U.S. in large numbers on the West Coast in the 1850s and 1860s to work in the gold mines and railroads. They encountered very strong opposition—violent as riots and physical attacks forced them out of the gold mines. The Central Pacific railroad hired thousands, but after the line was finished in 1869 they were hounded out of many railroad towns in states such as Wyoming and Nevada. Most wound up in Chinatowns—areas of large cities which the police largely ignored. The Chinese were further alleged to be "coolies" and were said to be not suitable for becoming independent thoughtful voters because of their control by tongs. The same negative reception hit the Asians who migrated to Mexico and Canada.[5][6]

People of Japanese descent began to arrive in large numbers between 1890–1907, many going to Hawaii (an independent country until 1898), and others to the West Coast. Hostility was very high on the West Coast. Hawaii was a multicultural society in which the Japanese experienced about the same level of distrust as other groups. Indeed, they were the largest population group by 1910, and after 1950 took political control of Hawaii. The Japanese on the West Coast of the U.S. (as well as Canada and Latin America) were interned during World War II, but very few on Hawaii at the Honouliuli Internment Camp.

Historiography

According to Chan (1996), the historiography of Asians in America falls into four periods. The 1870s to the 1920s saw partisan debates over curtailing Chinese and Japanese immigration; "Yellow Peril" diatribes battled strong, missionary-based defenses of the immigrants. Studies written from the 1920s to the 1960s were dominated by social scientists, who focused on issues of assimilation and social organization, as well as the World War II internment camps. Activist revisionism marked the 1960s to the early 1980s. Starting in the early 1980s there was an increased stress on human agency. Only after 1990 has there been much scholarship by professional historians.

Chronology

Major milestones according to standard reference works[7] and others are:

16th century
  • 1587, "Luzonians" (Filipinos from Luzon Island) arrive in Morro Bay (San Luis Obispo) California on board the galleon ship Nuestra Señora de Buena Esperanza under the command of Spanish Captain Pedro de Unamuno during the Manila Galleon Trade.[8][9]
  • 1595, Filipino sailors aboard a Spanish "galleon" the San Agustin which was commanded by Captain Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeno arrive on the shores of Point Reyes outside the mouth of the Bay Area. The ship was on a trip to Acapulco before it was shipwrecked on the aforementioned area.[10]

17th century

18th century
  • 1763
    • Notice for a captured suspected runaway slave on July 20, 1763, "not resembling the African negros", born in Bombay and spoke good English[12]
    • Filipinos established the small settlement of Saint Malo in the bayous of Louisiana, after fleeing mistreatment aboard Spanish ships. Since there were no Filipino women with them, the "Manilamen," as they were known, married Cajun and Native American women.[13]
  • 1768–1794, Records of three escaped slaves of East Indian ethnicities documented in Virginia and Philadelphia[14]
  • 1775–1783
    • At least 100 or more Asian-Americans lived in the Thirteen Colonies around the time of the American Revolution.[15]
    • Four well-documented Asian-Americans are known to have fought in the American Revolution (two serving with the American rebels and two with the British).[16]
  • 1778, Chinese sailors first arrive to Hawaii. Many settled and married Hawaiian women.[17]
  • 1779, Malays were listed as one of the many ethnicities who were part of the crew of the USS Bonhomme Richard during the Battle of Flamborough Head[18]
  • 1785, Chinese sailors of an American ship reached Baltimore.[19]
  • 1798, A tombstone in Boston was dedicated to a person named Chow Mandarin, aged 19, who was born in Canton and died falling off a ship's masthead on September 11, 1798.[20]

19th century
  • 1815, Filipinos working as shrimp fishermen and smugglers in Louisiana serve under General Andrew Jackson's American forces in the War of 1812 and as artillery gunners at the Battle of New Orleans.
  • 1820s, Chinese (mostly merchants, sailors, and students) begin to immigrate via Sino-U.S. maritime trade.
  • 1829, Famous conjoined twins Chang and Eng Bunker, both born in Siam (modern-day Thailand), began performing on a series of tours in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, with a Siamese translator brought along to help translate for Chang and Eng.[21] Chang and Eng became naturalized US citizens in the 1830s and settled down in North Carolina. Two of their sons with their American wives later fought for the Confederacy during the American Civil War.[22]
  • 1835, First account of Chinese laborers on Hawaii by an American, who were noted to perform efficient, backbreaking work compared to indigenous Hawaiian laborers. In response, an Anglo-American entrepreneur hires the first Chinese paid laborers in Hawaii and recommends the importation of Chinese laborers to the Continental US.[23]
  • 1841, Captain Whitfield, commanding an American whaler in the Pacific, rescues five shipwrecked Japanese sailors. Four disembark at Honolulu. Manjiro Nakahama stays on board returning with Whitfield to Fairhaven, Massachusetts. After attending school in New England and adopting the name John Manjiro, he later becomes an interpreter for Commodore Matthew Perry.
  • 1849, First mass wave of Chinese immigrants to the US for gold prospecting including in states such as California, North Dakota, and South Dakota. In 1852, 20,000 Chinese-Americans migrated to California, totaling 67,000 Chinese immigrants in California. In response to increased Chinese immigration, the California legislature passed a new foreign miner's tax of $4 a month.[24]
  • 1850, Seventeen survivors of a Japanese shipwreck were saved by an American freighter; In 1852, the group joins Commodore Matthew Perry to help open diplomatic relations with Japan. One of them, Joseph Heco (Hikozo Hamada) later becomes a naturalized US citizen.
  • 1854
  • 1861–1865, Several dozen Asian-American volunteers enlist in the Union Army and Union Navy during the American Civil War.[27] Smaller numbers serve in the armed forces of the Confederate States of America.
  • 1861 The utopian minister Thomas Lake Harris of the Brotherhood of the New Life visits England, where he meets Nagasawa Kanaye, who becomes a convert. Nagasawa returns to the US with Harris and follows him to Fountaingrove in Santa Rosa, California. When Harris leaves the Californian commune, Nagasawa became the leader and remained there until his death in 1932.
  • 1862, California imposes a tax of $2.50 a month on every Chinese man.
  • 1865, The Central Pacific Railroad Co. recruits Chinese workers for the transcontinental railroad from California to Utah. Many are killed or injured in the harsh conditions blasting through difficult mountain terrain.
  • 1869, A group of Japanese build the Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Farm Colony in Gold Hill, California
  • 1869, The Fourteenth Amendment gives full citizenship to every person born in the United States, regardless of race.
  • 1877, Denis Kearney organizes anti-Chinese movement in San Francisco and forms the Workingmen's Party of California, alleging that Chinese workers took lower wages, poorer conditions, and longer hours than white workers were willing to tolerate.
  • 1878, Chinese are ruled ineligible for naturalized citizenship.
  • 1882, Chinese Exclusion Act is passed banning immigration of laborers from China. Students and businessmen are allowed. Large numbers of Chinese gain entry by claiming American birth.[28]
  • 1884, Philip Jason, a Korean independence activist and physician who later became an American citizen among Koreans for the first time, arrived in the United States.
  • 1885 The Rock Springs massacre in Wyoming leaves 28 Chinese miners dead.
  • 1887, Robbers kill 31 Chinese miners Snake River, Oregon.
  • 1890, In Hawaiʻi, then an independent country, sugar plantations hire large numbers of Japanese, Chinese and Filipinos. They form a majority of the population by 1898.
  • 1898 Hawaiʻi joins the U.S. as a territory. Most residents are Asian and they receive full U.S. citizenship.
  • 1898 The Philippines joins the U.S. as a territory. The residents of the Philippines become U.S. nationals but not citizens.

1901 to 1940
Asian-American loggers in Clallam Bay, Washington, c. 1919.

1941-1999

21st century
  • 2000, Norman Y. Mineta. Democratic Congressman, appointed by President Bill Clinton as the first Asian American appointed to the U.S. Cabinet; worked as Commerce Secretary (2000–2001), Transportation Secretary (2001–2006).
  • 2000, Angela Perez Baraquio became the first Asian American, first Filipino American, and first teacher ever to have been crowned Miss America.
  • 2001, Elaine Chao was appointed by President George W. Bush as the Secretary of Labor, serving to 2009. She is the first Asian American woman to serve in the Cabinet.
  • 2002, less than a month after the death of Rep. Patsy Mink, Congress passed a resolution to rename Title IX the "Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act.
  • 2003, Ignatius C. Wang is an American bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Auxiliary Bishop of the Archdiocese of San Francisco from 2002 to 2009.
  • 2008, Cung Le, first Asian American to win a major mma title by defeating Frank Shamrock via TKO in Strikeforce.
  • 2008, Bruce Reyes-Chow, 3rd generation Filipino and Chinese American, was elected as the moderator of 2 million members of the Presbyterian Church (USA).[59]
  • 2008, Tim Lincecum, a starting pitcher for the San Francisco Giants, is selected as an All Star for the Major League All Star Game. Lincecum, who is half-Filipino, also won the Cy Young award as the most successful pitcher in the National League in 2008. Lincecum is the first Asian American to be selected as the Cy Young winner. Lincecum also won the Cy Young again in 2009 and led the Giants to a World Series victory in 2010.
  • 2009, Steven Chu, co-winner of the 1997 Nobel Prize for Physics, is sworn in as U.S. Secretary of Energy—thereby becoming the first person appointed to the US Cabinet after having won a Nobel Prize.[60] He is also the second Chinese American to become a member of Cabinet (after Elaine Chao).[61]
  • 2009, Joseph Cao, a Republican, is the first Vietnamese American and person born in Vietnam elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, from Louisiana's 2nd congressional district; he was defeated for reelection in 2010.
  • 2009, Judy Chu is the first Chinese American woman elected to the U.S. Congress.[62]
  • 2009, Gary Locke is appointed by President Obama to serve as the Secretary of Commerce.
  • 2009, Dr. Jim Yong Kim is appointed as President of Dartmouth College, becoming the first Asian American president of an Ivy League School.
  • 2010, Immigration from Asia surpassed immigration from Latin America.[63] Many of these immigrants are recruited by American companies from college campuses in India, China, and South Korea.[64]
  • 2010, Daniel Inouye is sworn in as President Pro Tempore making him the highest-ranking Asian-American politician in American history.
  • 2010, Far East Movement is the second Asian American band to top the Billboard 100, second only to Rocky Fellers with its song "Like a G6". The song was number one on two separate weeks in November 2010.
  • 2010, Jeremy Lin is the first American-born Taiwanese to become an NBA player. Lin was a star basketball player for Harvard University and excelled at NBA pre-draft camps. Lin is currently a player for the Santa Cruz Warriors of the NBA G League.
  • 2010, Jean Quan is elected as Mayor of Oakland, California. Quan is the first Asian American woman elected mayor of a major American city. Quan is Oakland's first Asian American mayor.[65]
  • 2010, Ed Lee is appointed as Mayor of San Francisco, California.[65]
  • 2010, Ed Wang was the first full-blooded Chinese player to both be drafted and to play in the NFL.
  • 2011, Gary Locke becomes U.S. Ambassador to the People's Republic of China.[66]
  • 2013, Nina Davuluri became the second Asian American and first Indian American to be crowned as Miss America. She is the second Asian American following Angela Perez Baraquio in 2000.
  • 2015, Bobby Jindal, Governor of Louisiana (2008—present), becomes the first Indian American to run for President of the United States, and is the first Asian American to run a nationwide campaign to seek the United States Presidency.
  • 2016, Kamala Harris was elected to the United States Senate from California, and is the first Indian American to serve as a United States Senator.
  • 2016, President-elect Donald Trump announces his intention to nominate Nikki Haley to serve as United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Haley is confirmed January 2017 and is the first Asian American and Indian American to serve as United Nations Ambassador.
  • 2017, Elaine Chao was appointed by President Donald Trump to serve as the Secretary of Transportation.
  • 2017, Simon Tam wins a unanimous case at the Supreme Court for Matal v. Tam (the right to register The Slants' trademark).
  • 2018, Noel Francisco was appointed by President Donald Trump to serve as the Solicitor General.
  • 2019, Kamala Harris becomes first Indian American woman to campaign for the United States.
  • 2021, Kamala Harris is sworn in as the first Multiracial American, Indian American, Asian American, African American, and female Vice President of the United States.[67][68]
    Kamala Harris sworn in as the first Asian American and female Vice President

See also

Histories of specific ethnic/national subgroups:

Further reading

Reference books
  • Lee, Erika (2015). The Making of Asian America: A History. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781476739427.
  • Chen, Edith Wen-Chu, and Grace J. Yoo, eds. Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today (2 vol, 2009) excerpt and text search
  • Huang, Guiyou, ed. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Asian American Literature (3 vol. 2008) excerpt and text search
  • Japanese American National Museum. Encyclopedia of Japanese American History: An A-To-Z Reference from 1868 to the Present (2nd ed. 2000)
  • Kim, Hyung-Chan, ed. Dictionary of Asian American History (1986) 629pp; online edition
  • Lee, Jonathan H.X. and Kathleen M. Nadeau, eds. Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife (3 vol. 2010)
  • Lee, Jonathan H.X. History of Asian Americans: Exploring Diverse Roots (2015)
  • Ng, Franklin. The Asian American Encyclopedia (6 vol., 1995)
  • Oh, Seiwoong, ed.. Encyclopedia of Asian-American Literature (2007)
  • Okihiro, Gary Y. American History Unbound: Asians and Pacific Islanders (University of California Press, 2015). xiv, 499 pp.
  • Jeffrey D. Schultz (2000). Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans. Oryx Press. ISBN 978-1-57356-148-8.

Reference books specialized by region

Surveys by scholars
  • Chan, Sucheng. Asian Americans: an interpretive history (Twayne, 1991). ISBN 978-0-8057-8437-4
  • Fuchs, Lawrence H. Hawaii Pono: An Ethnic and Political History (1997)
  • Lee, Shelley Sang-Hee. A New History of Asian America (2014)
  • Okihiro, Gary Y. The Columbia Guide to Asian American History (2001) online edition excerpt and text search
  • Okihiro, Gary Y. Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (University of Washington Press, 2014)
  • Takaki, Ronald Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans New York: Little, Brown, 1998. ISBN 978-0-316-83130-7
  • Antoinette J. Lee; Michèle Gates Moresi (2005). Asian Reflections on the American Landscape: Identifying and Interpreting Asian Heritage (PDF) (Report). National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior.

Historiography
  • Chan, Sucheng. "The changing contours of Asian-American historiography", Rethinking History, March 2007, Vol. 11 Issue 1, pp 125–147; surveys 100+ studies of defining events; Asian diasporas; social dynamics; cultural histories.
  • Chan, Sucheng. "Asian American historiography," Pacific Historical Review, Aug 1996, Vol. 65#3 pp. 363–99
  • Espiritu, Augusto. "Transnationalism and Filipino American Historiography," Journal of Asian American Studies, June 2008, Vol. 11#2 pp. 171–184,
  • Friday, Chris. "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation," Labor History, Fall 1994, Vol. 35#4 pp. 524–546,
  • Gregory, Peter N. "Describing the Elephant: Buddhism in American," Religion and American Culture, Summer 2001, Vol. 11#2 pp. 233–63
  • Kim, Lili M. "Doing Korean American History in the Twenty-First Century," Journal of Asian American Studies, June 2008, Vol. 11@2 pp 199–209
  • Lai, Him Mark. "Chinese American Studies: A Historical Survey". Chinese America: History and Perspectives. 1995: 11–29.
  • Lee, Erika, "Orientalisms in the Americas: A Hemispheric Approach to Asian American History," Journal of Asian American Studies vol 8#3 (2005) pp 235–256. Notes that 30–40% of the Chinese and Japanese immigrants before 1941 went to Latin America, especially Brazil, and many others went to Canada.
  • Ngai, Mae M. "Asian American History—Reflections on the De-centering of the Field," Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2006, Vol. 25#4 pp 97–108
  • Okihiro, Gary Y. The Columbia Guide to Asian American History (2001) excerpt and text search
  • Okihiro, Gary Y. Common Ground: Reimagining American History (2001) excerpt and text search
  • Tamura, Eillen H. "Historiographical Essay," History of Education Quarterly, Spring 2001, Vol. 41#1 pp. 58–71
  • Tamura, Eillen H. "Using the Past to Inform the Future: An Historiography of Hawaii's Asian and Pacific Islanders," Amerasia Journal, 2000, Vol. 26#1 pp. 55–85

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