Biological passport

An athlete biological passport is an individual electronic record for professional athletes, in which profiles of biological markers of doping and results of doping tests are collated over a period of time. Doping violations can be detected by noting variances from an athlete's established levels outside permissible limits, rather than testing for and identifying illegal substances.[1]

Not to be confused with biometric passport.
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Although the terminology athlete passport is recent, the use of biological markers of doping has a long history in anti-doping. Maybe the first marker of doping that tries to detect a prohibited substance not based on its presence in urine or blood but instead the induced deviations in biological parameters is the testosterone over epitestosterone ratio (T/E). The T/E has been used by sports authorities since the beginning of the 1980s to detect anabolic steroids in urine samples. A decade later, in 1997, markers of blood doping were introduced by some international federations, such as the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) and the Federation Internationale de Ski, to deter the abuse of recombinant erythropoietin that was undetectable by direct means at that time.

In 2002 the concept of using biological markers to detect doping became known by the term "athlete passport". The advantages were listed in a science journal paper.[2] and the terminology adopted by the World Anti-Doping agency.[3]

While a new drug test must be developed and validated for each new drug, the advantage of the athlete passport is that it is based on the natural stability of the physiology of the human being. There can be a lag of between the availability of a new drug and the development of an effective test. In contrast, the physiology of the human being remains the same through several generations and all biomarkers developed today in the athlete passport will remain valid for at least several decades. For example, the blood module of the passport is already sensitive today to any new future form of recombinant erythropoietin, as well as to any form of gene doping that will enhance oxygen transfer to the muscles. Also, while a negative drug test does not necessarily mean that the athlete did not dope, the athlete can present his/her passport at the beginning of a competition to attest that he/she will compete in his/her natural, unaltered condition.

The athlete passport was widely covered in the media when the blood module was established at the beginning of the 2008 racing season by the world cycling federation, the UCI.[4] In May 2008 the UCI revealed that 23 riders were under suspicion of doping following the first phase of blood tests conducted under the new biological passport.[5]

The blood module of the athlete passport aims to detect any form of blood doping, the steroid module any form of doping with anabolic steroid and the endocrine module any modification of the growth hormone/IGF-1 axis. Each of these modules are however at different steps of development, validation and application in sports.

Athlete biological passport testing

According to the World Anti-Doping Agency, the athlete biological passport is administered to establish whether an athlete is manipulating his/her physiological variables without detecting a particular substance or method. The biological passport uses the standardized approach of urine sampling to determine steroid abuse. The objective of this testing is to identify athletes in a haematological module and a steroidal module.

The haematological module tests for certain markers in the body that identify the enhancement of oxygen transport. The specific markers the module tests for include haematocrit, haemoglobin, red blood cell count, percentage of reticulocytes, reticulocytes count, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean red cell distribution width, and immature reticulocyte fraction.

The steroidal module collects information on markers for steroid doping and aims to identify endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids. The specific markers the module tests for include testosterone, epitestosterone, the testosterone/epitestosterone ratio, androsterone, and etiocholanolone.[6]

The World Anti-Doping Agency recently released the 2014 Prohibited Substances list and it will take effect on 1 January. In the new list, the agency modified the definitions of exogenous and endogenous steroids being tested for in the steroidal module of the biological passport.[7]

Cycling
Ricardo Serrano was one of the five first riders that UCI opened a biological passport case against, in 2009.[8]

Whereabouts rules
See also: World Anti-Doping Agency § Whereabouts rule

Under the new rules, registered riders have to give the Union Cycliste Internationale daily information about their location and provide a one-hour window for possible testing. They have to submit a form every quarter-year saying where they will be every day of the next quarter and they must notify the UCI if they change their whereabouts on any day. This means the whereabouts information provided in the whereabouts filings is accurate and sufficient in detail to enable any relevant Anti-Doping Organization to locate him for testing on any given day in that period of time.[9] This is the most invasive testing programme in the history of any sport, but the UCI feels this invasion of privacy is justified as previously implemented anti-doping regimes have failed to detect every doping violation.

Cyclists sanctioned on basis of biological passports

The biological passport programme has allowed the UCI to sanction riders for committing an anti-doping rule violation. Riders have also been targeted with further doping controls based on their biological passport.

Name Team Country Event Start of disqualification Sanction Sanction
announced		 Ineligibility starting Ineligibility ending Reference(s)
António Amorim  Portugal Road racing 24 July 2010 2 years ineligibility 10 July 2013 14 April 2015 [10][11]
Igor Astarloa Team Milram  Spain Road racing 15 Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 1 Dec. 2010 26 Nov. 2010 25 Nov. 2012 [12][13][14][15]
Carlos Barredo Quick-Step, Rabobank  Spain Road racing 17 Oct. 2007
–24 Sept. 2011,
only		 2 years ineligibility July 2014 18 Oct 2012 17 Oct 2014 [16]
Leonardo Bertagnolli Liquigas, Androni Giocattoli, Lampre–ISD  Italy Road racing 1 Jan. 2003
–18 May 2011		 2 years and 10 months ineligibility July 2014 24 Nov. 2013 [16]
Pietro Caucchioli Crédit Agricole  Italy Road racing 18 June 2009 2 years ineligibility 3 June 2010 18 June 2009 17 June 2011 [15][17][18]
Francesco De Bonis Gerolsteiner, Diquigiovanni–Androni  Italy Road racing 18 June 2009 2 years ineligibility May 2010 18 June 2009 17 June 2011 [15][19][20]
Leif Hoste Omega Pharma–Lotto  Belgium Road racing 2 years ineligibility 29 Mar. 2013 29 Dec. 2015 [16]
Rubén Lobato Saunier Duval–Scott  Spain Road racing 16 July 2010 2 years ineligibility July 2010 16 July 2010 15 July 2012 [15][21][22]
Denis Menchov Rabobank, Team Katusha  Russia Road racing 2009, 2010 & 2012 TdF,
only		 2 years ineligibility July 2014 10 April 2014 9 April 2015 [16]
Franco Pellizotti Liquigas  Italy Road racing 7 May 2009 2 years ineligibility March 2011 3 May 2010 2 May 2012 [18][23]
Sérgio Ribeiro  Portugal Road racing 12 years ineligibility (2nd ARDV) 14 July 2025 [24]
Ricardo Serrano Tinkoff Credit Systems  Spain Road racing 7 May 2009 2 years ineligibility 17 June 2010 7 May 2009 6 May 2011 [15][25]
Jonathan Tiernan-Locke Endura Racing/Team Sky  United Kingdom Road racing 2012 Tour of Britain & 2012 UCI Worlds,
only		 2 years ineligibility July 2014 31 Dec. 2013 31 Dec. 2015 [26]
Tadej Valjavec Ag2r–La Mondiale  Slovenia Road racing 19 April
–30 Sept. 2009,
only		 2 years ineligibility April 2011 20 Jan. 2011 19 Jan. 2013 [23][27]

During the first three years of UCI's bio passport program 26 riders were found positive for EPO. In 20 out of the 26 cases, it was the abnormal blood profile which raised suspicions leading to a targeted doping test.[28]

  • Manuel Beltrán (Liquigas) tested positive for EPO at the 2008 Tour de France in a targeted test after anomalies appeared in a blood sample taken at the start of the Tour. The pre Tour blood samples were collected by the French Anti-doping Agency (AFLD) and the results from the testings were submitted to the UCI to form part of their database of profiles for their biological passport programme.[29]
  • Gabriele Bosisio (LPR Brakes-Ballan) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in September 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction.[30]
  • Antonio Colom (Team Katusha) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in April 2009, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction.[31]
  • Thomas Dekker (Rabobank) tested positive for EPO in a retroactive test carried out on a urine sample taken in December 2007. Dekker's hematological profile led the UCI to review the EPO analyses for urine samples conducted since the introduction of the biological passport programme.[15][32]
  • Danilo Di Luca (LPR Brakes-Ballan) tested positive for CERA twice during the 2009 Giro d'Italia after being targeted under the biological passport programme.[33][34]
  • Alberto Fernández de la Puebla (Fuji–Servetto) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in October 2009, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme.[35] He received a two-year sanction.[36]
  • David George (MTB) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control 29 August 2012, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme of the South African Institute for Drug-Free Sport (the South African national Anti-doping agency). He admitted to having used EPO and received a two-year sanction.[37][38]
  • Massimo Giunti (Androni Giocattoli) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in February 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme.[39] He received a two-year sanction.[40]
  • Eddy Ratti (De Rosa-Stac Plastic) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in January 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme.[41] He received a two-year sanction.[42]
  • Manuel Vázquez Hueso (Andalucía-Cajasur) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in March 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme.[43] He received a two-year sanction.

Athletics

The International Association of Athletics Federations introduced their Athletes Biological Passport programme in 2009, and they announced the first sanction under the passport in May 2012.[44][45] The Portuguese marathon runner Hélder Ornelas became the first track and field athlete to get suspended for doping based on the biological passport.[44][45][46] He received a four-year suspension in May 2012.[47]

Track and field athletes sanctioned on basis of biological passports
Name Country Event Date of infraction/
Start of disqualification		 Sanction Sanction
announced		 Ineligibility
starting		 Ineligibility
ending		 Reference(s)
Inga Abitova F  Russia Marathon 10 Oct. 2009 2 years ineligibility 7 Nov. 2012 11 Oct 2012 10 Oct. 2014 [47][48]
Anna Alminova F  Russia 1500 m 16 Feb. 2009 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 30 July 2014 16 Dec. 2011 15 May 2014 [49]
Aslı Çakır Alptekin F  Turkey 1500 m 29 July 2010 8 years ineligibility (2nd ADRV) 17 Aug. 2015 10 Jan. 2013 9 Jan. 2021 [50][51][52]
Elena Arzhakova F  Russia 800 m, 1500 m 12 July 2011 2 years ineligibility 30 April 2013 29 Jan. 2013 28 Jan. 2015 [47][53]
Ahmed Baday M  Morocco Long-distance 26 March 2010 2 years ineligibility 6 March 2015 31 Dec. 2014 30 Dec. 2016 [54][55]
Sergey Bakulin M  Russia Race walking 25 Jan. 2011 3 years and 2 months ineligibility 20 Jan. 2015 24 Dec. 2012 [56][57][58]
Yassine Bensghir M  Morocco Middle-distance 7 June 2014 4 years ineligibility 25 July 2016 12 April. 2016 11 April 2020 [59]
Alemitu Bekele F  Turkey 5000 m 17 Aug. 2009 2 years and 9 months ineligibility (Reduced from 4 years[60][61]) 16 Jan. 2013 3 March 2012 2 Jan. 2015 [47][62]
Petr Bogatyrev M  Russia Race walking 12 July 2011 2 years ineligibility 26 March 2014 16 Oct. 2013 15 Oct. 2015 [47][62]
Valeriy Borchin M  Russia Race walking 14 Aug. 2009 8 years ineligibility 20 Jan. 2015 15 Oct. 2012 [56][57][58]
Abderrahime Bouramdane M  Morocco Marathon 14 March 2011 2 years ineligibility 28 Oct. 2015 2 Oct. 2015 1 Oct. 2017 [63][64]
Yolanda Caballero F  Colombia Middle-/long-distance 24 Oct. 2011 4 years ineligibility 25 May. 2016 28 April. 2014 27 April 2018 [65]
Hafid Chani M  Morocco Long-distance 19 March 2011 4 years ineligibility 26 June 2015 11 March 2015 10 March 2019 [66][67]
Bahar Doğan F  Turkey Marathon 3 June 2011 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 25 Oct. 2015 31 March 2015 30 Sept. 2017 [68][69]
Marta Dominguez F  Spain Steeplechase 5 Aug. 2009 3 years ineligibility 19 Nov. 2015 24 June 2015 12 Oct. 2017 [69][70]
Hamza Driouch M  Qatar 800 m, 1500 m. 2 Aug. 2012 2 years ineligibility 24 Feb. 2015 31 Dec. 2014 30 Dec. 2016 [71][72]
Aliaksandra Dublia F  Belarus Marathon 11 Oct. 2013 2 years ineligibility 27 Jan. 2016 28 Sept. 2015 27 Sept. 2017 [73]
Stanislav Emelyanov M  Russia Race walking 26 July 2010 2 years ineligibility 28 July 2014 15 Dec. 2012 14 Dec. 2014 [74][75]
Rkia El Moukim M  Morocco Middle-/long-distance 19 March 2011 2 years ineligibility 19 Feb. 2016 19 Feb. 2016 18 Feb. 2018 [76]
Najim El Qady M  Morocco Long-distance 19 March 2011 2 years ineligibility 24 June 2016 8 June. 2016 7 June 2018 [77]
Meryem Erdoğan F  Turkey Long-distance 27 July 2010 2 years ineligibility 25 July 2012 14 Feb. 2014 [45][78]
Miguel Ángel Gamonal M  Spain Half marathon 3 years ineligibility (2nd ADRV) 28 Oct. 2015 26 Oct. 2015 25 Oct. 2018 [63]
Abderrahim Goumri M  Morocco Marathon 22 April 2009 4 years ineligibility 25 July 2012 14 March 2016[lower-alpha 1] [45][78]
Yelizaveta Grechishnikova F  Russia 5000 m 18 Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 3 Dec. 2013 16 Oct. 2013 15 Oct. 2015 [47][79]
Lidiya Grigoryeva F  Russia Long-distance 17 Feb. 2009 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 24 June 2016 16 Feb. 2016 15 Aug. 2018 [77]
Halima Hachlaf F  Morocco 800 m. 14 Oct. 2013 4 years ineligibility 24 April 2014 19 Dec. 2013 18 Dec. 2017 [47][80]
Tetyana Hamera-Shmyrko F  Ukraine Marathon 26 Aug. 2011 4 years ineligibility 20 Nov. 2015 30 Sept. 2015 29 Sept. 2019 [69][81]
Hussain Al-Hamdah M  Saudi Arabia 5000 m. 26 March 2009 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 25 Feb. 2015 15 Feb. 2013 14 Aug. 2015 [72][82]
Ekaterina Ishova (née Gorbunova) F  Russia 1500 m, 3000 m, 5000 m. 12. July 2011 2 years ineligibility 3 Dec. 2013 23 Oct. 2013 22 Oct. 2015 [47][79]
Stéphane Joly M   Switzerland Cross country 14 Oct. 2010 2 years ineligibility 5 June 2013 29 April 2013 28 April 2015 [83][84]
Vladimir Kanaykin M  Russia Race walking 25 January 2011 8 years 20 Jan. 2015 17 Dec. 2012 16 Dec. 2020 [56][57][58]
Olga Kaniskina F  Russia Race walking 15 August 2009 3 years and 2 months ineligibility 20 Jan. 2015 15 Oct. 2012 [56][57][58]
Natallia Kareiva F  Belarus 1500 m. 28 July 2010 2 years ineligibility 29 Sept. 2014 22 Aug. 2014 21 Aug. 2016 [47][85][86]
Ümmü Kiraz F  Turkey Marathon 3 June 2011 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 25 Oct. 2015 31 March 2015 30 Sept. 2017 [68][69]
Svetlana Kireyeva F  Russia Long-distance 26 June 2012 2 years ineligibility 27 Jan. 2016 4 June 2015 3 June 2017 [73]
Sergey Kirdyapkin M  Russia Race walking 20 August 2009 3 years and 2 months ineligibility 20 Jan. 2015 15 Oct. 2012 [56][57][58]
Svetlana Klyuka F  Russia 800 m. 15 Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 25 July 2012 9 Feb. 2014 [45][78]
Eirini Kokkinariou F  Greece Steeplechase 2 July 2009 4 years ineligibility 25 July 2012 27 Oct. 2011 26 Oct. 2015 [47][48]
Mariya Konovalova F  Russia Marathon Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 5 Nov. 2015 27 Oct. 2015 26 Oct. 2017 [69][87][88]
Yekaterina Kostetskaya F  Russia 800 m, 1500 m. 30 Aug. 2011 2 years ineligibility 28 July 2014 21 Jan. 2013 20 Jan. 2015 [74][75]
Alena Kudashkina F  Russia Long-distance 9 July 2012 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 24 June 2016 23 Sept. 2015 22 March 2018 [77]
Abdelhadi Labäli M  Morocco Middle-distance 9 July 2012 2 years ineligibility 25 May. 2016 27 April. 2016 26 April 2018 [65]
Mikhail Lemaev M  Russia Marathon 20 Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 26 Feb. 2013 30 Jan. 2013 29 Jan. 2015 [47][89]
Anna Lukyanova F  Russia Race walking 19 July 2010 2 years ineligibility 19 Feb. 2016 26 Nov. 2015 25 Nov. 2017 [76]
Irina Maracheva F  Russia 800 m. 26 June 2012 2 years ineligibility 19 Feb. 2016 23 Jan. 2015 22 Jan. 2017 [76]
Ildar Minshin M  Russia Steeplechase 15 Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 21 Sept. 2016 25 Aug. 2016 24 Aug. 2018 [90]
Anna Mishchenko F  Ukraine 800 m./1500m./3000 m. 28 June 2012 2 years ineligibility 19 Feb. 2016 18 Aug. 2015 17 Aug. 2017 [76]
Tatyana Mineeva F  Russia Race walking 12 Nov. 2011 2 years ineligibility 14 Dec. 2012 16 Nov. 2014 [47]
Marco Morgado M  Portugal Cross country running 29 Oct. 2011 6 years ineligibility 25 Feb. 2014 24 Feb. 2013 24 Feb. 2019 [47][91]
Sergey Morozov M  Russia Race walking 25 Feb. 2011 Life ban 18 Dec. 2012 Life ban
(2nd ARDV)		 [47]
Semiha Mutlu F  Turkey Race walking 20 Aug. 2011 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 25 Oct. 2015 3 March 2015 2 Sept. 2017 [68][69]
Maria Nikolaeva F  Russia 400 m./800 m. 18 Feb. 2015 4 years ineligibility 19 Feb. 2016 1 Oct. 2015 30 Sept. 2019 [76]
Ilja Nikolajev M  Estonia Marathon 16 April 2013 2 years ineligibility 12 May 2015 3 Feb. 2015 2 Feb. 2017 [92][93]
Maksym Cerrone Obrubanskyy M  Italy 1500 m, 3000 m. 5000 m. 17 Feb. 2013 4 years ineligibility 25 Feb. 2014 30 May 2013 29 May 2017 [47][91]
Nina Okhotnikova F  Russia Race walking 21 June 2011
–17 Nov. 2011		 2 years ineligibility 17 March 2015 22 Jan. 2015 21 Jan. 2017 [93][94][95]
Hélder Ornelas M  Portugal Marathon 8 March 2010 4 years ineligibility 2 May 2012 12 Jan. 2016 [45][47]
Hanane Ouhaddou F  Morocco Steeplechase 14 August 2009 2 years ineligibility 7 June 2014 [96]
Tetiana Petlyuk F  Ukraine 800 m. 18 Aug. 2009 2 years ineligibility 5 April 2013 19 Feb. 2015 [47]
Meliz Redif F  Turkey 400 m. 26 June 2012 3 years ineligibility 25 Oct. 2015 31 March 2015 30 March 2018 [68][69]
José Rocha M  Portugal Long-distance 11 Dec. 2010 2 years ineligibility 28 Feb. 2014 25 March 2013 24 March 2015 [47][97]
Yuliya Ruban F  Ukraine Marathon 8 March 2012 2 years ineligibility 29 May 2015 25 Feb. 2015 24 Feb. 2017 [93]
Yuliya Rusanova F  Russia 800 m. 3 March 2011 2 years ineligibility 26 Feb. 2013 28 Jan. 2013 27 Jan. 2015 [47][89]
Andrey Ruzavin M  Russia Race walking 18 Dec. 2011
–18 Feb. 2012
13 Sept. 2013
–13 Nov 2013		 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 17 March 2015 9 Oct. 2014 8 April 2017 [93][94][95][98]
Pınar Saka F  Turkey 400 m. 18 June 2010 3 years ineligibility 28 Jan. 2014 3 June 2013 2 June 2016 [47][97]
Mohammed Shaween M  Saudi Arabia 1500 m. 12 June 2011 3 years ineligibility 28 July 2014 13 Feb. 2013 12 Feb. 2016 [74][75]
Anzhelika Shevchenko F  Ukraine 1500 m. 2 July 2011 2 years ineligibility 5 April 2013 17 Feb. 2015 [47]
Liliya Shobukhova F  Russia Marathon 9 Oct. 2009 2 years and 7 months (Reduced from 3 years and 2 months by WADA after first being extended from 2 years by CAS) 29 April 2014 22 Jan. 2013 23 Aug. 2015 [99][100][101][102]
Fernando Silva M  Portugal Cross country running 29 Oct. 2011 8 years ineligibility 26 Feb. 2014 24 Sept. 2013 23 Sept. 2021 [47][91]
Svitlana Shmidt F  Ukraine Middle-distance 8 March 2012 4 years ineligibility 30 April 2015 17 March 2015 16 March 2019 [93][103]
Olesya Syreva F  Russia 1500 m, 3000 m. 3 March 2011 2 years ineligibility 26 Feb. 2013 1 Feb. 2013 31 Jan. 2015 [47][89]
Irina Timofeyeva F  Russia Marathon 10 Oct. 2009 2 years ineligibility 21 Sept. 2016 6 Sept. 2016 5 Sept. 2018 [90]
Wang Jiali F  China Marathon 29 May 2012 2 years ineligibility 25 Feb. 2014 26 Feb. 2013 25 Feb. 2015 [47][91]
Nevin Yanit F  Turkey Sprinting, hurdling 28 June 2012 3 years ineligibility 6 March 2015 6 March 2013 5 March 2016 [66][67]

[104]

Igor Yerokhin M  Russia Race walking 25 Feb. 2011 Life ban 24 Sept. 2013 Life ban
(2nd ARDV)		 [47][105]
Lyudmyla Yosypenko F  Ukraine Heptathlon 25 Aug. 2011 4 years ineligibility 24 Sept. 2013 27 March 2013 26 March 2017 [47][105]
Nailiya Yulamanova F  Russia Marathon 2 years ineligibility 25 July 2012 9 Feb. 2014 [45][78]
Yuliya Zaripova F  Russia Steeplechase 20 July 2011 2 years and 6 months ineligibility 30 Jan. 2015 25 July 2013 [57][58][106]
Yevgeniya Zinurova F  Russia 800 m. 6 March 2010 2 years ineligibility 25 July 2012 12 Sept. 2013 [45][78]

In March 2014 the Spanish athletics federation cleared Marta Dominguez in a bio passport case. El País reported that IAAF were going to take the case to CAS.[107] In February 2014 IAAF announced they would appeal Aslı Çakır Alptekins ABP related doping case to CAS after the Turkish federation had cleared her. IAAF also suspended her provisionally.[108] An IAAF spokesperson in January 2015 confirmed that Russian race walker Sergey Bakulin was provisionally suspended since December 2012 in an ABP related doping case.[109] IAAF otherwise doesn't publicly announce provisional suspensions. In February 2015 Turkish press reported that Ümmü Kiraz, Bahar Doğan, Semiha Mutlu and Meliz Redif were under investigation in bio passport cases.[110]

Triathlon

In 2012 USADA sanctioned the American triathlete Mark Fretta "after variations in his individual longitudinal blood profile as well as other documentary evidence indicated the use of Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Agents".[111] Fretta received a four-year ban,[111] and his results from 18 August 2010 onwards were annulled.[112]

Football (soccer)

In 2014, the biological passport was introduced in the 2014 FIFA World Cup; blood and urine samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match were analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses.[113]

Notes
  1. A. Goumri died in a car crash in January 2013

References
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