Mainland Australia

It has been estimated that Australian Aborigines occupied mainland Australia up to 50,000 to 60,000 [11] years ago, well before the last ice-age. Although an exact figure has not been decided on, numerous DNA studies all confirm that Aboriginal Australians are one of the oldest living populations in the world[12] outside of Africa. Prior to the arrival of Europeans on the Australian mainland in the late 18th century, over 500[13] different clan groups (nations) each with unique cultures, beliefs and languages inhabited territories on the mainland. Currently, Indigenous people living on the mainland make up 2.4%[13] of the total Australian population, encompassing over 250 language groups.[14]

The first documented encounter of the Australian mainland was by Willem Janszoon in 1606, as he sailed around Australia's north coast arriving in present-day Cape York, Queensland.[15] These explorations led way to the term 'Terra Australis', Latin for South Land, which was hypothesised on the notion there must be land in the Southern Hemisphere to balance the land mass in the Northern Hemisphere.[16] This encounter led several other Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and British journeyings to Terra Australis throughout the 17th and 18th century, progressively mapping what we now know to be as (mainland) Australia. The most famous and well documented expedition of Australia occurred 164 years after Janszoon's journey, through British navigator and explorer James Cook. He documented the first interaction of the Eastern Australian coastline, and on 23 April 1770, Cook made the first recorded observation of Indigenous Australians[17] at nowadays Brush Island. This journey, coupled with numerous other reports, ultimately led the British to establish a penal colony in Australia, firstly at Botany Bay.

Eastern Coast of Australia

Along the Eastern seaboard of the mainland are the Coastal Plains; a narrow strip of land along the East coast of Australia from Queensland to Victoria.[20] This division is host to some of the mainlands major cities, namely, Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne, due to its hospitable conditions. Some sources refer to the Coastal Plains as the entire coastline of the mainland, outspreading beyond the East Coast.[19]

Approximately 100 km (62 mi) inland, The Eastern Highlands (including the Great Dividing Range) cover almost 10% of the mainland.[21] Incorporating several mountain ranges which extend 3,700 km (2,300 mi)[22] the Highlands run parallel to the East coast of the mainland; covering Queensland, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. The highlands were formed around 80 million years ago,[23] and are some of the oldest and most prominent in the world. This area is very rugged and primarily consists of a series of tablelands and plateaus. The highlands are much more prominent toward the South East of the mainland and form the Southern Highlands, which are located across (south) New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. These Southern highlands (see Snowy Mountains) experience snowfall for more than half the year during the Winter seasons due to their higher altitude.

Occupying approximately 25% of the Australian mainland,[21] the Central Lowlands (and Deserts) are low-lying with an average height of under 200 metres (660 ft) above sea level. It is home to the Sturt and Simpson deserts and closer to Central Australia lie some desert mountain ranges (MacDonnell and Musgrave). The Central Lowlands incorporates three primary drainage basins: in the North, the Carpentaria Lowlands, Lake Eyre toward the centre and the Murray-Darling Basin down South.[19] The lowest point on the mainland is found in this division at Lake Eyre, at 50m below sea level.[24]

Western Plateau, Northern Territory

Approximately 144 to 65 million years ago (Cretaceous period), there lay a great inland sea, stretching over one quarter of the mainland.[25] The evaporation of this ocean left behind what we now know as the Western Plateau. The Western and Northern Plateaus incorporate nearly all Western Australia and the Northern Territory and parts of South Australia. Over one-third of the mainland, the Plateaus are made of one stable block of igneous and metamorphic rock which is up to 3.6 billion years old.[21] Despite this, the Plateau is a huge area of tablelands, averaging 500m above sea level in some parts.[19] It is home to Uluru, Kata Tjuta, the Finke River, the Victorian Desert, the Great Sandy Desert and the Gibson Desert. Much of the Western Plateau receives minimal rainfall and thus appears red in colour. Conversely, the Northern Plateau experiences heavy rainfall throughout the wet season (November to April),[24] due to its more tropical location compared to the Western Plateau.

The Australian mainland is host to some of the world's largest open-cut and underground mines. Across the mainland states (besides the ACT), there are over 350 operating mines (website), producing 19 useful rocks and minerals. These mines allow Australia to be one of the world's largest producers of: iron ore, coal, bauxite (aluminium ore), manganese, nickel, copper, gold, silver, cobalt, lead, copper, uranium, opal and diamond.[27] Some of the largest mines on the Australian mainland are listed below:

The Australian mainland's various geology and climate, has led to the increased utilisation of renewable energy (solar, wind and hydro) over recent decades.[34] In 2021, approximately 28.9% of the mainland's total electricity generation was from renewable energy sources with South Australia at 66.5% renewable energy generation, Victoria at 33.4%, Western Australia at 31.5%, New South Wales at 26.0% and Queensland at 19.6%.[35] The majority of this renewable energy was generated through wind and solar, proportionally contributing 35.9% and 38.3% respectively.

From 1788 to 1859, Britain established five colonies on the Australian mainland,[37] and one in Tasmania. All six colonies were constitutionally connected to Britain, each with their own parliament and courts, with their respective laws subject to the laws of British Parliament.

These colonies formed the six states of Australia; New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia (included the Northern Territory at this time), Queensland and Tasmania. In 1901, the six states were united as the Commonwealth of Australia, under a new federal constitution.[38] In 1911, the Northern Territory was transferred from South Australia to the Commonwealth and formed a territory.[37]

Location of Canberra

After Federation in 1901,[38] it was always assumed the Australian capital would lay on the mainland. However, the location of the capital sparked years of negotiating between politicians in New South Wales and Victoria, the two most prominent states, who each wanted their capital, Sydney and Melbourne respectively, to become the new country's capital.

After years of debate to no avail, the two states decided on a compromise that met the requirements of the Australian Constitution. A separate territory (the Australian Capital Territory) was to be established on land given by New South Wales, however it must be at least 100 miles (160 km) from Sydney.[39] This territory would contain the official capital of Australia, and until then, Parliament would sit in Melbourne until the city (now Canberra) was built. In 1909, this compromise was agreed upon and was finally legislated in 1911.[40]

On 12 March 1913, Canberra or Ngunnawal country to the Indigenous people of the area, was officially named as the capital of Australia.[41] In 1915, Jervis Bay territory was added to the Australian Capital Territory to ensure the Commonwealth had a seaport.[42]