1998 Brazilian general election

General elections were held in Brazil on 4 October 1998 to elect the President, National Congress and state governorships. If no candidate in the presidential election received more than 50% of the vote in the first round, a second-round runoff would have been held on 25 October. The election saw voting machines used for the first time in Brazilian history.

1998 Brazilian general election

4 October 1998
Presidential election
Turnout78.51%
 
Candidate Fernando Henrique Cardoso Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva Ciro Gomes
Party PSDB PT PPS
Alliance Union, Work and Progress Union of People Change Brazil Real and Fair Brazil
Running mate Marco Maciel Leonel Brizola Roberto Freire
Popular vote 35,922,692 21,470,333 7,424,783
Percentage 53.06% 31.71% 10.97%

Presidential election results by state

President before election

Fernando Henrique Cardoso
PSDB

Elected President

Fernando Henrique Cardoso
PSDB

Chamber of Deputies

All 513 seats in the Chamber of Deputies
257 seats needed for a majority
PartyLeader % Seats +/–
Chamber of Deputies
PSDB Teotônio Vilela Filho 17.54 99 +37
PFL Jorge Bornhausen 17.30 105 +16
PMDB Orestes Quércia 15.17 83 -24
PT José Dirceu 13.19 58 +9
PPB 11.35 60 New
PDT Leonel Brizola 5.67 25 -9
PTB Ricardo Ribeiro 5.66 31 0
PSB 3.41 19 +4
PL Alvaro Valle 2.47 12 -1
PPS 1.31 3 +1
PCdoB 1.30 7 -3
PRONA Enéas Carneiro 0.89 1 +1
PSD 0.76 3 0
PSC 0.67 3 0
PMN 0.54 2 -2
PST 0.29 1 New
PSL 0.27 1 New
Senate

27 of the 81 seats in the Federal Senate
PartyLeader % Seats
Senate
PMDB Orestes Quércia 21.69 10
PT José Dirceu 18.42 6
PPB 14.95 1
PFL Jorge Bornhausen 11.40 5
PSDB Teotônio Vilela Filho 10.30 4
PSB 6.39 1

Elected in 1994 amidst a hyperinflation crisis, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso of the centre-right Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB) prioritized price stability policies during his term.[1] Other notable policies pursued by Cardoso included the declaration of Decree 1775,[2] which allowed for increased commercial interest in indigenous lands, and the privatization of publicly-owned companies.[3] Vice President Marco Maciel of the conservative Liberal Front Party (PFL) served as Cardoso's running mate, as he did in the previous election.[4]

Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of the Workers' Party (PT), a former labor leader and federal deputy, ran for the presidency for a third time.[5] Lula had previously run for the presidency in both 1989, where he lost to Fernando Collor, and 1994, where he lost to Cardoso. Lula chose Leonel Brizola of the Democratic Labour Party (PDT), a longtime fixture of the Brazilian Left who was a chief competitor of his in 1989, as his running mate.

In addition to Lula, Ciro Gomes, a populist who previously served as Governor of Ceará and as Minister of Finance in the conservative government of President Itamar Franco, mounted his own campaign.[6] Running as a member of the centre-left Popular Socialist Party (PPS), Ciro attempted to present himself as a progressive alternative to Lula.

Cardoso won reelection with an absolute majority in the first round, negating the need for a second round. In doing so, he became the first President of Brazil to be reelected since the fall of the military dictatorship. Lula would later succeed him after winning the 2002 presidential election, and Ciro would mount a second presidential bid four years later in the 2002 presidential election, where he came in fourth place.

Background

Fernando Henrique Cardoso, better known as "FHC", had been inaugurated as president on January 1, 1995, after defeating Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, his main rival in the 1994 election, in the first round by an advantage of almost 30 million votes.[1] FHC had based his first presidential campaign in the then newly launched Real Plan and the promise of stabilizing the economy of Brazil. As a matter of fact, the plan had a positive effect during the first years of his administration, being able to curb the exorbitant inflation rates, stabilize the exchange rate, and increase the purchasing power of the Brazilian population without shocks or price freezing.[1]

On the very first day of his administration, the Treaty of Asunción came into force.[1] Signed by Fernando Collor de Mello, it predicted the implementation of Mercosur, a free trade area between Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.[1] Moreover, the first FHC administration was marked by political and economic reforms, such as the end of the state monopolies in oil and telecommunications, the reform on the social security plans, and the change in the concept of "national company".[1]

Although approved in the Congress, the reforms carried by the federal government met strong resistance from the opposition, most notably the Workers' Party, which fiercely criticized the privatization of companies such as Vale do Rio Doce and the constitutional amendment that allowed the re-election of officeholders in the Executive branch.[1] As a result, Peter Mandelson, a close aide to then British Prime Minister and Labour Party leader Tony Blair, alleged that the Workers' Party's proposals represented "an old-fashioned and out-of-date socialism".[7] At that time, FHC-Blair relations were magnified, once both of them were adherents of the Third Way.

Despite its political victories, the government needed to impose measures to cool down the domestic demand and help the trade balance, which eventually caused unemployment to grow and made the economy show signs of recession.[1] Other areas, such as health, education and land reform also suffered major crises.[1] The violent conflict in the countryside reached its peak with the Eldorado dos Carajás massacre. Thus, FHC's reelection campaign was based on the idea that the continuity of his government was essential for the stabilization to reach areas other than the economy, such as health, agriculture, employment, education, and public security.[1]

President Fernando Henrique Cardoso in 1998.

Presidential election

Candidates

The 1998 presidential race had twelve candidates, the largest number of candidates since the 1989 election, when over twenty candidacies were launched. The number could have been as high as fifteen, but the Electoral Justice withdrew the candidacy of impeached President Fernando Collor de Mello,[8] while Oswaldo Souza Oliveira[9] and João Olivar Farias declined to run.

Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB)

The Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB) reprised the coalition which had elected Cardoso four years prior, comprising the Liberal Front Party (PFL) and the Brazilian Labour Party (PTB). They were joined by the Progressive Party (PPB), the Social Democratic Party (PDS), and the Social Liberal Party (PSL). Once again, PFL member Marco Maciel served as Cardoso's running mate.

Workers' Party (PT)

The Workers' Party reprised its past two candidacies, by launching former union leader and federal deputy Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva as its candidate and forming a coalition with the Communist Party of Brazil, and the Brazilian Socialist Party. Other PT members, such as former Mayor of Porto Alegre Tarso Genro, were mentioned as potential candidates.[10] Indeed, it was reported in 1997 that Lula was willing to give up his candidacy in favor of backing a bid by Genro, though this did not come to fruition.[11]

The novelty in this election was the choice of longtime fixture of the Brazilian Left Leonel Brizola, a member of the Democratic Labour Party (PDT), as his running mate. Unlike in 1994, when close Lula ally and fellow PT member Aloizio Mercadante was chosen as Lula's running mate, Brizola had previously been a rival of Lula's, serving as his main opposition on the left in the 1989 election. The PT previously refrained from forming coalitions with parties linked to varguista labour unions to guarantee the Central Única dos Trabalhadores' (CUT) independence. As a result, the United Socialist Workers' Party left the coalition and launched union leader José Maria de Almeida as its candidate.

Brizola was noted for his combative style in contrast to Lula's more "diplomatic" tone on the campaign trail, while led the Folha de S.Paulo to declare that he "outshine[d]" Lula in their first joint appearance.[10]

Leonel Brizola, a longtime fixture of the Brazilian Left, who served as the running mate of his former rival Lula in the 1998 election.

Socialist People's Party (PPS)

Former Governor of Ceará Ciro Gomes run for president, and, therefore, his Socialist People's Party (PPS) did not join the Workers' Party coalition as they did in the previous election. After Oswaldo Souza Oliveira's quit the race, his Party of the Nation's Retirees decided to support Gomes.

Other candidates

After securing the third place in the 1994 election, Enéas Carneiro from the far-right Party of the Reconstruction of the National Order (PRONA) also run in 1998. This time, however, he only received 1.4 million votes, against 4.6 million in 1994. Carneiro's running mate was Irapuan Teixeira, a professor who would later become a member of the Chamber of Deputies as a member of PRONA.

This election also brought the second woman candidate ever: Thereza Tinajero Ruiz from the National Labor Party, which replaced Dorival Masci de Abreu.[12]

Party Candidate Most relevant political office or occupation Party Running mate Coalition Electoral number
Workers' Party

Workers' Party (PT)

Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
Member of the Chamber of Deputies from São Paulo
(1987–1991)
Democratic Labour Party

Democratic Labour Party (PDT)

Leonel Brizola
Leonel Brizola
Union of the People Change Brazil 13
United Socialist Workers' Party

United Socialist Workers' Party (PSTU)

José Maria de Almeida
José Maria de Almeida
PSTU National President
(since 1993)
United Socialist Workers' Party

United Socialist Workers' Party (PSTU)

José Galvão de Lima 16

National Labour Party (PTN)

Thereza Ruiz

National Labour Party (PTN)

Eduardo Gomes 19
Social Christian Party

Social Christian Party (PSC)

Sérgio Bueno Social Christian Party

Social Christian Party (PSC)

Ronald Azaro 20
Popular Socialist Party

Popular Socialist Party (PPS)

Ciro Gomes
Ciro Gomes
Governor of Ceará
(1991–1994)
Popular Socialist Party

Popular Socialist Party (PPS)

Roberto Freire
Roberto Freire
Real and Fair Brazil 23
Christian Social Democratic Party

Christian Social Democratic Party (PSDC)

José Maria Eymael
José Maria Eymael
Member of the Chamber of Deputies from São Paulo
(1987–1995)
Christian Social Democratic Party

Christian Social Democratic Party (PSDC)

Josmar Alderete 27

National Solidarity Party (PSN)

Vasco Azevedo Neto
Vasco Azevedo Neto
Member of the Chamber of Deputies from Bahia
(1971–1989)

National Solidarity Party (PSN)

Alexandre Santos 31
Party of National Mobilization

Party of National Mobilization (PMN)

Ivan Frota Lieutenant-brigadier of the Brazilian Air Force Party of National Mobilization

Party of National Mobilization (PMN)

João Ferreira da Silva 33
Green Party

Green Party (PV)

Alfredo Sirkis
Alfredo Sirkis
Member of the Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro
(1989–1997)
Green Party

Green Party (PV)

Carla Piranda Rabello 43
Brazilian Social Democracy Party

Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB)

Fernando Henrique Cardoso
Fernando Henrique Cardoso
President of Brazil
(1995–2003)
Liberal Front Party

Liberal Front Party (PFL)

Marco Maciel
Marco Maciel
Union, Work and Progres 45
Party of the Reconstruction of the National Order (PRONA) Enéas Carneiro
Enéas Carneiro
PRONA National President
(1989–2006)
Party of the Reconstruction of the National Order (PRONA) Iraouan Teixeira 56

Labour Party of Brazil (PTdoB)

João de Deus

Labour Party of Brazil (PTdoB)

Nanci Pilar 70

Results

President

CandidateRunning matePartyVotes%
Fernando Henrique CardosoMarco Maciel (PFL)Brazilian Social Democracy Party35,936,54053.06
Luiz Inácio Lula da SilvaLeonel Brizola (PDT)Workers' Party21,475,21831.71
Ciro GomesRoberto FreirePopular Socialist Party7,426,19010.97
Enéas CarneiroIrapuan TeixeiraParty of the Reconstruction of the National Order1,447,0902.14
Ivan FrotaJoão Ferreira da SilvaParty of National Mobilization251,3370.37
Alfredo SirkisCarla Miranda RabelloGreen Party212,9840.31
José Maria de AlmeidaJosé Galvão de LimaUnited Socialist Workers' Party202,6590.30
João de DeusNanci PilarLabour Party of Brazil198,9160.29
José Maria EymaelJosmar AldereteChristian Social Democratic Party171,8310.25
Thereza RuizEduardo GomesNational Labour Party166,1380.25
Sérgio BuenoRonald AzaroSocial Christian Party124,6590.18
Vasco Azevedo NetoAlexandre José dos SantosNational Solidarity Party109,0030.16
Total67,722,565100.00
Valid votes67,722,56581.30
Invalid/blank votes15,575,29818.70
Total votes83,297,863100.00
Registered voters/turnout106,101,06778.51
Source: Nohlen[13]

Chamber of Deputies

PartyVotes%Seats+/–
Brazilian Social Democracy Party11,684,90017.5499+37
Liberal Front Party11,526,19317.30105+16
Brazilian Democratic Movement Party10,105,60915.1783–24
Workers' Party8,786,49913.1958+9
Brazilian Progressive Party7,558,60111.3560New
Democratic Labour Party3,776,5415.6725–9
Brazilian Labour Party3,768,2605.66310
Brazilian Socialist Party2,273,7513.4119–4
Liberal Party1,643,8812.4712–1
Popular Socialist Party872,3481.313+1
Communist Party of Brazil869,2701.307–3
Party of the Reconstruction of the National Order592,6320.891+1
Social Democratic Party503,7130.7630
Social Christian Party446,2560.6730
Party of National Mobilization360,2980.542–2
Green Party292,6910.440–1
Progressive Republican Party255,5090.380–1
Labour Party of Brazil216,6400.3300
Social Labour Party193,5620.291New
United Socialist Workers' Party187,6750.2800
Social Liberal Party177,0370.271New
National Solidarity Party136,8290.210New
National Labour Party64,7120.100New
Party of the Nation's Retirees62,6530.090New
Christian Social Democratic Party62,0570.090New
National Reconstruction Party54,6410.080–1
Brazilian Labour Renewal Party53,7780.0800
Brazilian Communist Party49,6200.0700
Workers' General Party27,8250.040New
Workers' Cause Party8,0670.010New
Total66,612,048100.005130
Valid votes66,612,04879.98
Invalid/blank votes16,668,70720.02
Total votes83,280,755100.00
Registered voters/turnout106,053,10678.53
Source: Nohlen,[14] Senate

Senate

PartyVotes%Seats
ElectedTotal
Brazilian Democratic Movement Party13,414,07421.691026
Workers' Party11,392,66218.4267
Brazilian Progressive Party9,246,08914.9513
Liberal Front Party7,047,85311.40520
Brazilian Social Democracy Party6,366,68110.30416
Brazilian Socialist Party3,949,0256.3913
Democratic Labour Party3,195,8635.1704
Brazilian Labour Party2,449,4793.9601
Popular Socialist Party1,846,8972.9901
Communist Party of Brazil559,2180.9000
Party of the Reconstruction of the National Order376,0430.6100
Social Christian Party371,8730.6000
United Socialist Workers' Party371,6180.6000
Social Labour Party213,6430.3500
Green Party163,4250.2600
Party of National Mobilization144,5410.2300
Christian Social Democratic Party114,5730.1900
National Solidarity Party110,0800.1800
National Reconstruction Party99,0770.1600
Progressive Republican Party76,9690.1200
Liberal Party71,9740.1200
Brazilian Labour Renewal Party67,5860.1100
Labour Party of Brazil62,0860.1000
Party of the Nation's Retirees43,3890.0700
National Labour Party42,0420.0700
Social Democratic Party18,6470.0300
Social Liberal Party12,8700.0200
Workers' General Party11,8100.0200
Workers' Cause Party2740.0000
Total61,840,361100.002781
Valid votes61,840,36174.26
Invalid/blank votes21,435,56825.74
Total votes83,275,929100.00
Registered voters/turnout106,053,10678.52
Source: Nohlen,[15] IPU

Notes

    References

    1. MASON, Anthony. Memórias do Século XX - Vol. 6: Tempos Modernos, 1970-1999. Translated and adapted by Maria Clara de Mello Motta. Rio de Janeiro: Reader's Digest, 2004. ISBN 85-7645-016-X
    2. Moore, Sara Gavney; Lemos, Maria Carmen (1999-05-01). "Indigenous Policy in Brazil: The Development of Decree 1775 and the Proposed Raposa/Serra do Sol Reserve, Roraima, Brazil". Human Rights Quarterly. 21 (2): 444–463. doi:10.1353/hrq.1999.0026. ISSN 1085-794X. S2CID 144099400.
    3. "Primeiro Governo de Fernando Henrique Cardoso". Mundo Educação (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-12-02.
    4. "Leonel Brizola, 82; Brazilian Politician". Los Angeles Times. 2004-06-23. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
    5. Boas, Taylor C. (2016-03-04). Presidential Campaigns in Latin America: Electoral Strategies and Success Contagion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-54626-0.
    6. "Folha de S.Paulo - Partido pode apoiar Ciro Gomes - 30/6/1998". www1.folha.uol.com.br. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
    7. "Mandelson under fire in Brazil". BBC News. 1998-07-23. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
    8. "O Caso Collor - A tentativa de retorno" Archived June 9, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Superior Electoral Court. December 19, 2008. Accessed December 2, 2010.
    9. MENEZES, Ana Cláudia. "Candidatos passam o Dia dos Pais com as famílias" Archived 2011-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. A Notícia. August 10, 1998. Accessed December 2, 2010.
    10. "Folha de S.Paulo - Brizola ofusca Lula em 1° ato conjunto - 22/11/97". www1.folha.uol.com.br. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
    11. "Folha de S.Paulo - Lula apóia Tarso Genro para Presidência - 12/05/97". www1.folha.uol.com.br. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
    12. LARANJEIRA, Leandro. "Mulheres podem fazer história nas eleições de 2010" Archived 2012-03-08 at the Wayback Machine. Diário do Grande ABC. 10 de agosto de 2009. Acesso em: 28 de junho de 2010.
    13. Dieter Nohlen (2005) Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume II, p234 ISBN 978-0-19-928358-3
    14. Nohlen, pp196-226
    15. Nohlen, p213
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