Bulaka River languages

Usher (2014) reconstructs the consonant inventory as follows.[3] Although the modern inventories of Yelmek and Maklew are nearly identical, they lack a one-to-one correspondence. Maklew in particular has been heavily influenced by Marind, and participates in a number of sound changes that occurred in that language. Usher posits:

• j for Yelmek j ~ Maklew s (→ [z] in the Jab dialect of Yelmek; also found in loans from Marind /j/, which in some dialects is [hʲ])
• w for Yelmek w ~ Maklew h (also found in loans from Marind /w/, which in some dialects is [hʷ])
• ɣ for Yelmek ŋ ~ Maklew h (→ [g] in the Jab dialect of Yelmek; Makelew /h/ also found in loans from Marind /ɣ/, which in the central dialects becomes [h])

and, in loan words, mostly from Marind,

• s for Yelmek t ~ Maklew s (→ [ts] is Jab).

In addition, there is a set of correspondences between alveolars in Yelmek and velars in Maklew (n~ŋ, t~k, d~g). Usher transcribes these as a series of palatal consonants (*ɲ *c *ɟ), but this is merely a typographic convenience. The phonetic forms are not easily recoverable, but most instances (8 out of 10) are followed by *e, suggesting that there was a vocal component. Usher suggests that *ɲ *c *ɟ might actually have been *niV *tiV *diV or *ŋiV *kiV *giV, none of which occur in the reconstructions despite the high frequency of the sequence *iV otherwise. The expected sequences *itV and *ikV also do not occur, so it's possible that *ɲ *c *ɟ reflect all three of these series, rather than a fourth place of articulation.

*m	*n	*ɲ (= *{n|ŋ}i/_V?)	*ŋ
*p	*t	*c (= *{t|k}i/_V?)	*k
*b	*d	*ɟ (= *{d|g}i/_V?)	*g
	[*s]
*w	*l	*j	*ɣ

*i		*u
*e	(*ə)	*o
	*a

The reconstruction of *ə is not firm, at least partly because the transcribed data is often unreliable.

There are vowel sequences of *iV and *uV. These might have been reconstructed as **jV and **wV, with no vowel sequences in the proto-language, but that analysis would require changing *w and *j in the consonant table above to **β and **ʝ, disinct from **w and **j, resulting in a larger set of consonants and an odd inventory of fricatives.

Usher (2020) reconstructs the pronouns as:[3]

	sg	pl
1	*ŋ[e]l	*ŋag
2	*au (?)	*ale (?)
3	*eb	*em[e]l

Proto-Bulaka River lexical reconstructions by Usher (2014) are:[3]

gloss	Proto-Bulaka River
afraid	*oio
ankle	*boto
ant	*kani[a/e]
ashes	*kab
ask about	*lig(-)
ask for	*liw
back	*uele
bamboo	*biol
banana	*okal
bandicoot	*jowoli
bathe	*jale
be (future)	*ŋaiak
be hungry	*ɣi
beach	*uelo
big	*bala-
bitter	*ipa
blood	*ewlek[e]
blunt/dull	*map
body/chest	*agal
bone/shin	*pu
branch	*kaka
breadfruit	*joko
break (rope)	*[a]ŋeme
break (wood)	*maɣe
breast	*momo
breath	*waku
bush/forest	*golu
canoe	*imo
cassowary	*owi
child/offspring	*iaŋ
coconut	*mi[a/o]
coconut shell	*apina
cold	*ioɣ[a]
cough/sneeze	*ŋot[o]
crocodile	*iaua[ŋ]
crooked/turn	*meŋ
dark/black	*ɟewi
(day)light	*owo
deep	*dam
dig	*k[o]uak
dog	*num
dream	*ŋeɣe
drink/suck	*[a]ŋ[e]
dry	*ua-
ear	*opo-kolo
earthquake	*ŋ[a/o]ɣum[o]
enemy	*kui
excrement	*de, *gauo
eye/face	*opo
feather	*papa
fence	*molo
fire	*ace
fish	*dem, *dam
fly (n.)	*uoli
fly (v.)	*mu
foot/leg	*uodo
forehead	*cule
fruit	*noma
go up	*ukal
good/true	*ŋama-
grab/hold	*[a]ɣep[e]
grandparent	*kaga
hard	*kakeie
hear	*[i]ŋe
hit/smash	*pliaɣ
hole	*kolo
hot/sharp	*dimo
house	*ebi
husband	*ebVwe
imperative	*ia-
intransitive	*ŋo-
kill	*gul-
knowledge	*uowka
kunai grass	*uoka
laugh	*ŋuw
leaf	*op
lie down/sleep	*ku
light (weight)	*popu-
lightning	*melVm
lime/white	*mVlino
long	*tipu-
louse	*dobuna
mountain	*uomal
mouth/door	*uwo
mucus	*em
name	*ŋaɟel[e]
neck	*ua[n/l]
negative	*ma
net	*apija
new	*ŋaluo-
night	*ui
now/today	*ŋop[i]
oblique	*el ~ *ol
old (thing)	*poto-
older sibling	*ɲena
one	*ŋuka
path	*came
penis	*mu
person	*ŋuwa
pig	*milom
plait	*ɣo
plant (v.)	*[e]ule
possessive	*a[u]-
rain	*maŋ
rib(s)	*mel
ripe	*ŋewe
rope	*del
run/run away	*jeme
sago stems	*buka
saliva	*wVlo
see	*[a]b[e]
shoot	*to
short	*tama-
sick/ill	*dogo
sit	*ma[n/d]
sleep	*opula
small	*wVti-
smoke	*acaja
snake	*gumolo
soft/weak	*ieg(ieg)
sole	*mulo
sour	*[a]bowol
speech	*gaga
spine	*ieŋo
steal	*ɟepe
stone	*mat[e]
stone axe	*iebu
straight	*amom
suffix on adj.	*pa-
sugarcane	*belam
sun/sky	*[a/o]limu
swim	*ce
tame/orphan	*ŋomo-
taro	*muj
tendon	*ouo
testicle	*oko
thigh	*c[a]pe, *cepe
throat	*bila
thumb/big toe	*ege-
tongue	*nepla
tooth	*kal
torch	*ual[e]no
tree/wood	*doio
upright	*daŋ
urine	*oŋo
voice	*wai[a]
wait	*[a]lpo
wallaby	*doki
wash	*uw
water	*iu
weep/cry	*ŋom
widow	*boi
wife	*kepi[ŋ/ɣ][e]
wing	*mama
woman/female	*iowa-
younger sibling	*uobia