Yam languages

The Yam languages, also known as the Morehead River languages, are a family of Papuan languages. They include many of the languages south and west of the Fly River in Papua New Guinea and Indonesian West Papua.

Yam
Morehead River
Geographic
distribution
Morehead River watershed, New Guinea
Linguistic classificationA primary language family
  • Yam
Subdivisions
Glottologmore1255
Map: The Yam languages of New Guinea
  Yam languages
  Trans–New Guinea languages
  Other Papuan languages
  Austronesian languages
  Australian languages
  Uninhabited

Name

The names Morehead and Upper Maro River or Morehead-Maro refer to the area around the Morehead and Maro rivers. Most of the languages are found between these rivers, but the Nambu subgroup are spoken east of the Morehead. Evans (2012) refers to the family instead with the more compact name Yam. This name is motivated by a number of linguistic and cultural items of significance: yam (and cognates) means "custom, tradition"; yəm (and cognates) means "is"; and yam tubers are the local staple and of central cultural importance.

External relationships

Ross (2005) tentatively includes the Yam languages in the proposed Trans-Fly – Bulaka River family. More recently (Evans 2012) has argued that this is not justified and more data has to be gathered. Evans (2018) classifies the Pahoturi River languages as an independent language family.[1]

Yam languages have also been in intensive contact with Marind and Suki speakers, who had historically expanded into Yam-speaking territories via headhunting raids and other expansionary migrations.[1]

Classification

Internal classification of the Yam languages:[2]

Wichmann (2013) did not find a connection between the branches in his automated comparison.[3]

Languages

Yam languages are spoken by up to 3,000 people on both sides of the border in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. In Papua New Guinea, Yam languages are spoken in Morehead Rural LLG, Western Province. In Papua, Indonesia, Yam languages are spoken in Merauke Regency.[1]

Yam languages and respective demographic information listed by Evans (2018) are provided below.[1] Geographical coordinates are also provided for some villages.[4]

List of Yam languages
LanguageAlternative namesSubgroupSpeakersVillages or hamlets
AntaTokwe, Upper Morehead, ThamngaTonda150Ufarua (8.635484°S 141.633236°E / -8.635484; 141.633236 (Uparua)), Forzitho, Thamgakar (8.626232°S 141.611057°E / -8.626232; 141.611057 (Damgar)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
KomnzoKamundjo, Upper Morehead, (Mema, Ranzér), Zókwasi, FaremTonda200Rouku (8.701793°S 141.598485°E / -8.701793; 141.598485 (Rouku)), Gunana, Morehead (8.708915°S 141.634593°E / -8.708915; 141.634593 (Morehead Station)), Firra, Masu, Kanathér in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
WáraTjokwe, Upper Morehead, Wära, MätTonda350Yokwa (8.700472°S 141.523053°E / -8.700472; 141.523053 (Iokwa)), (Mäwsa, Kwaikér, Zäzér Ménz) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
WérèTokwe, Upper Morehead, WóräTonda100Tokwa (8.643291°S 141.436129°E / -8.643291; 141.436129 (Tokwa)), Kanfok in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
KémäUpper MoreheadTonda130Wämnefér (8.74137°S 141.415826°E / -8.74137; 141.415826 (Wemnevere)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
KáncháKunja, Lower Morehead, Peremka, KénzäTonda350*Bondobol (8.929521°S 141.338469°E / -8.929521; 141.338469 (Bondobol)), Bula (9.128337°S 141.340513°E / -9.128337; 141.340513 (Bula)), Jarai (9.196839°S 141.584426°E / -9.196839; 141.584426 (Jarai)) in southeast Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
RánmoTonda, Renmo, BlafeTonda200*Yéndorodoro (8.59196°S 141.29677°E / -8.59196; 141.29677 (Indorodoro)), Mengete (8.657045°S 141.284029°E / -8.657045; 141.284029 (Mengete)) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
MblafeBlafe, Blafe Wonana, TondaTonda350*Weam (8.618919°S 141.134728°E / -8.618919; 141.134728 (Weam Village)), Kandarisa (8.621418°S 141.2194°E / -8.621418; 141.2194 (Kandarisa)), Wereaver (8.596603°S 141.123567°E / -8.596603; 141.123567 (Wereavere)) (only recently in Wereaver) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
Warta ThuntaiGuntai, KanTonda430Wando (8.885893°S 141.258528°E / -8.885893; 141.258528 (Wando)), Bensbach (8.8493°S 141.249855°E / -8.8493; 141.249855 (Bensbach Lodge)), Balamuk, Korombo 1, Korombo 2 (8.754213°S 141.265672°E / -8.754213; 141.265672 (Korombo)) in mid southwest Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
ArammbaNoneTonda750Fwasam, Gowi, Kiriwa (8.437511°S 141.515843°E / -8.437511; 141.515843 (Kiriwo)), Meru (8.471963°S 141.466349°E / -8.471963; 141.466349 (Merru)), Sedefi (8.514592°S 141.610694°E / -8.514592; 141.610694 (Setavi)), Serki (8.250688°S 141.766022°E / -8.250688; 141.766022 (Serki)) in north central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
NggarnaNgar, Kanum, SotaTondaunknownVicinity of Sota in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
RemaTonda10? (moribund or extinct)Wereaver (8.596603°S 141.123567°E / -8.596603; 141.123567 (Wereavere)) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
SmerkiSmärki, Kanum, BarkariTonda150Rawu Biru, Tomer, Tomerau, Yakiw in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia
TamerSmerki, Smärki, KanumTonda120Yanggandur (recently moved there) in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia
NgkontarNgkontar, NgkolmpuTonda100Yanggandur in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG
NgkolmpuKiki, Ngkntra Kiki, Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, KnwneTondaeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG
Bedi NgkolmpuKanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, KnwneTonda5 (moribund or extinct)Onggaya in south central Merauke Regency, Indonesia
YeiYei1278Po, Torai, Bupul, Tanas, Kwel in east Merauke Regency, Indonesia
NenNambu350Bimadeben (8.701793°S 141.598485°E / -8.701793; 141.598485 (Bimadeben Vill/ Comm. Sch)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
NamaNambu1200Daraia (8.61637°S 141.733576°E / -8.61637; 141.733576 (Darava)), Mata (8.674546°S 141.743133°E / -8.674546; 141.743133 (Mata)), Ngaraita (8.599511°S 141.714869°E / -8.599511; 141.714869 (Garaita)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
NamatMibiniNambu170*Mibini (8.838849°S 141.637931°E / -8.838849; 141.637931 (Mibini)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
NamboNmbo, Keraki; Namna, YarneNambu710Nambo variety: Gubam (8.619428°S 141.922509°E / -8.619428; 141.922509 (Gubam)), Bebdeben (8.667668°S 141.925772°E / -8.667668; 141.925772 (Bebdeben)), Arufi (8.760576°S 141.913707°E / -8.760576; 141.913707 (Arufi)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; Namna variety: Pongarki (8.664295°S 141.827064°E / -8.664295; 141.827064 (Pongariki)), Derideri (8.686837°S 141.85624°E / -8.686837; 141.85624 (Derideri)) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
NemeNambu200Keru (8.483752°S 141.788348°E / -8.483752; 141.788348 (Keru)), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
DreNdreNambu1Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
NamoNambu374*Tais (9.167526°S 141.905733°E / -9.167526; 141.905733 (Tais)), Mari (9.193532°S 141.70247°E / -9.193532; 141.70247 (Mari)) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
LenNambu8–10Now living in Tais (9.167526°S 141.905733°E / -9.167526; 141.905733 (Tais)), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG

See also: Districts of Papua (Indonesian Wikipedia)

Pronouns

The pronouns Ross (2005) reconstructs for the family are,

Proto-Yam (Proto–Morehead – Upper Maro)
I/we*ni
you*bu
s/he/they*be

Typology

Many Yam languages display vowel harmony, including in Nambu and Tonda languages.[1]

Vocabulary comparison

Basic vocabulary

The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970)[5] and Voorhoeve (1975),[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:[7]

glossKanumYei
head melkilpel
hair mel-katapeab
eye sicur
tooth torter
leg tegucere
louse neːmpinnim
dog krarjeu
pig kwerbecek
bird sentoyarmaker
egg belmekur
blood mbelgul
bone mbaːrgor
skin keikeipaːr
tree perper
man ireel-lu
sun koŋkomir
water atakakao
fire mensbenj
stone mellemejer
name iuore
eat anaŋcenye
one nampernampei
two yempokayetapae

Fauna names

Below are some turtle names in Yam languages, along with names in Suki:[8]:378

Turtle speciesArammba (Serki)Neme (Keru)Nama Wat (Daraia)Nama Was (Mibini)Guntai (Wando)Blafe (Wereave)Rema (Metafa)Suki (Suki, Puka-duka)
Elseya branderhorstiM’bayFisorFisor FifiRawk Rawk SutafnarrChelbaNthelonForrMedepka
Elseya novaeguineaeFisor
Emydura subglobosaMaro KaniNgani FisorMani FisorMare SutafnarrMare ChelbaNtharase; Mari NthelonMari ForrTegma; i Anki Kan
Chelodina parkeriKunkaktaKunkakta
Chelodina rugosaTomba Kofe FisorMbuirrWeya SutafnarrMbroyerFisuwarTanfer Marr Forr
Chelodina novaeguineaeFasar KaniMboro arrMbro arrMagipinini
Carettochelys insculptaBudu SusaGarrBudu Susa
Pelochelys bibroniSokrereKiye Eise
Emydura sp. aff. worrelliRiskap Kani

All species are consumed by humans except for Chelodina novaeguineae, which is avoided due to its pungent odor. Carettochelys insculpta and Elseya branderhorsti are prized for their large sizes, with E. branderhorsti particularly valued for its plastron.[8]

Further reading

  • Carroll, Matthew J., Nicholas Evans, I Wayan Arka, Christian Döhler, Eri Kashima, Volker Gast, Tina Gregor, Julia Miller, Emil Mittag, Bruno Olsson, Dineke Schokkin, Jeff Siegel, Charlotte van Tongeren & Kyla Quinn. 2016. Yamfinder: Southern New Guinea Lexical Database.
  • Döhler, Christian (2018) A grammar of Komnzo. (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 22). Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1477799. ISBN 978-3-96110-125-2. Accessed on 2019-11-12.
  • Evans, Nicholas, I Wayan Arka, Matthew Carroll, Christian Döhler, Eri Kashima, Emil Mittag, Kyla Quinn, Jeff Siegel, Philip Tama & Charlotte van Tongeren. 2017. The languages of Southern New Guinea. In Bill Palmer (ed.), The languages and linguistics of the New Guinea area, 641–774. Berlin; Boston: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-029525-2. Accessed on 2019-11-12.
  • Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
  • Greenhill et al., 2008. In: Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.

References

  1. Evans, Nicholas (2018). "The languages of Southern New Guinea". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 641–774. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
  2. Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Morehead River
  3. Wichmann, Søren. 2013. A classification of Papuan languages. In: Hammarström, Harald and Wilco van den Heuvel (eds.), History, contact and classification of Papuan languages (Language and Linguistics in Melanesia, Special Issue 2012), 313-386. Port Moresby: Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea.
  4. United Nations in Papua New Guinea (2018). "Papua New Guinea Village Coordinates Lookup". Humanitarian Data Exchange. 1.31.9.
  5. McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. doi:10.15144/PL-B16
  6. Voorhoeve, C.L. Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist. Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists. B-31, iv + 133 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. doi:10.15144/PL-B31
  7. Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
  8. Georges, A., Guarino, F., & Bito, B. (2006). Freshwater turtles of the TransFly region of Papua New Guinea – notes on diversity, distribution, reproduction, harvest and trade. Wildlife Research, 33(5), 373. doi:10.1071/wr05087
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