Canna, Scotland

Neolithic cellars on Canna[note 1]

The "punishment stone"

Canna is littered with numerous pottery sherds evidencing the island's occupation in the Neolithic era, along with a small number of mysterious cellars dug into the ground. A distinctively shaped standing stone is found at Keill, around which a local legend has grown: according to the legend, when people on Canna were badly behaved, they would be punished by having their thumb jammed into a particular hole in the stone, at about 6'4" above ground level (hence the stone's name - the "punishment stone").

Dun Channa

Bronze Age remains are some of the most extensive in the North-Western Highlands, particularly at the western end of the island; these include fragments of huts arranged in circles, and ancient field walls, as well as pottery artefacts from the Beaker Culture. In the Iron Age a hillfort - Dun Channa - was constructed at the far western edge of Canna; another was probably constructed at the eastern edge, at Coroghon, in the same period[note 2].

In the 6th century, when the Irish missionary Columba first sailed to Iona, he first arrived at the island of Hinba, which he later treated to as a place of contemplative retreat. The extensive early Christian sculptures and structures on Canna, and its traditional association with Iona, have made many consider it to be the otherwise unidentified Hinba.[18] However, Adomnán (the chronicler of the life of Columba) noted that Brendan the Navigator stopped at Hinba[note 3] while travelling from Ireland to Iona; Canna is a most unlikely landfall on such a journey as it is well beyond the destination[note 4].[19]

Drawings of the cross-fragments found at Keill

At Keill are two large richly decorated Celtic crosses[note 5], dating from the 8th to 9th centuries,[20] which are thought to attest to the presence of a monastery. A cursing stone, was located at the site[note 6];[21] a device normally associated with Ireland, this only the second cursing stone ever to be found in Scotland.[21]

The ruins at Sgorr nam Ban-naomha

On the south coast of the island are the remains of a small, isolated, cashel-like building, which would have been difficult to supply with provisions, except by sea. In Gaelic the site is known as Sgorr nam Ban-naomha, meaning "grassy slope of the holy women"; in the 19th century, local people believed it had once been a nunnery,[22] but it is now thought to have been a hermitage, associated with the monastery at Keill. The enclosure contains three carved stones, bearing crosses[note 7], and was once believed to have had a healing spring.[23]

Following raids by the Vikings in the 9th century, the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of the Isles, a Norwegian crown dependency also known as Suðreyjar ("Southern Isles").[4] Written records are few, but the Viking occupation of Canna is evident from place names such as the element sgor, gearaid (enclosure), tota (homestead) and Sanday ("sand island") (though the name "Canna" itself may pre-date the Norse period).[24][25]

The "King of Norway's Grave"

A number of large oblong arrangements of kerb-stones throughout the island are thought to possibly indicate Viking ship burials, based on the evidence of similar structures on the Isle of Arran (which was also part of Suðreyjar). The largest is located at Rubha Langan-innis on the north coast, and known in Gaelic as Uaigh Righ Lochlainn (meaning "the grave of the King of Norway"); this is a narrow rectangular structure approximately 11 yards (10 m) long by 2.2 yards (2.0 m) wide on a grassy promontory below the cliffs.[4][26][27]

Later accounts imply that the monastery at Keill had been a centre of the Culdees while under Norwegian dominion. In the late 12th century, practical authority in Suðreyjar became split between a number of closely related magnates. In 1203, Ranald, the magnate ruling the portion that contained Iona, invited the Benedictines to establish a new Abbey at Iona; that same year, a papal bull was issued, listing the Island of Canna among the new Abbey's possessions.[20] It is likely that the previous Abbey of Iona had had some authority over Canna, perhaps even stretching before the Viking era,[20] but the fact that Norse rulers had not always been Christian may have disrupted Iona's authority, and Iona itself may have been deserted by the time Ranald requested a new Abbey[note 8].

The cliffs at Iorcail

In 1266, the Treaty of Perth transferred Suðreyjar to the Scottish king, as a set of crown dependencies - rather than merging it into Scotland itself. Geographically, Canna lay within the portion of the former Suðreyjar which had become the MacRory realm of Garmoran (stretching from Uist to the Rough Bounds), but documents relating to Garmoran do treat Canna as part of it, suggesting the island was still under the Abbot's control. The Abbot of Iona thus ruled Canna with considerable power. Nevertheless, at the turn of the century, William I had created the position of Sheriff of Inverness, to be responsible for the Scottish highlands, which theoretically now extended to Canna.[28][29]

During the 1420s, feuding within other fragments of Suðreyjar appears to have spilled onto Canna. The Abbot, Dominicus, obtained papal authority to ban all nobility from setting foot on the island, but this wasn't respected, and Canna had to be temporarily abandoned. In 1428, the Abbot wrote to the Pope requesting that he pronounce a general excommunication against anyone who harmed one of Canna's inhabitants, or damaged their property, claiming:

"by reason of wars and other calamities in the past divers homicides, depredations and other ills were perpetrated, so that some strong men of the familiars of the Abbot and convent were slain by pirates and sea rovers, and divers farmers and inhabitants of the island were afraid to reside there".[30]

Iorcail from the cliff tops

The Reformation was rapidly encroaching, however, and after 1498 Iona was transferred to Commendators, rather than Abbots. Canna became a possession of the Bishop of the Isles (also known as the "Bishop of Sodor"; "Sodor" is the traditional anglicisation of Suðreyjar). In 1548, the Dean of the Isles, Donald Monro, conducted a survey of the Bishop's lands and churches, reporting that the island was a: "faire maine land, foure myle lange, inhabit and manurit, with paroche kirke in it, guid for corne, fishing and grassing, with a falcon nest in it, pertines to the Abbot of Colmkill[note 9]",[31]

In 1561, the Bishop agreed to rent the island to the leader of Clan Ranald, a branch of the MacDonalds. In 1588, some of the remains of the Spanish Armada found refuge with the MacLeans of Duart, who had a longstanding feud with the MacDonalds (concerning the Rhinns of Islay). Lachlan - the MacLean leader - demanded that the Spanish supply him with 100 soldiers, as the price of their refuge, which he used to launch an attack against the Small Isles, in pursuance of the feud; Canna was "burned with fire".[32] Lachlan was imprisoned in Edinburgh by the king for this[note 10], but he escaped, and faced no further punishment[note 11].

Coroghon, with Compass Hill

By the early 17th century, the Bishopric of the Isles was held by Presbyterians, for whom the office of Bishop had a questionable status. In 1626, Thomas Knox, the Bishop, appears to have replaced Clan Ranald (who relunctantly accepted the reformation[note 12]) as his tenants, with the MacLeods of Raasay (active supporters of the reformation). At the end of his life, in 1627, Thomas Knox sold Canna to the Earl of Argyll,[34] one of the most powerful Covenanters. Under pressure from the Earl, shrieval authority transferred from Inverness to the sheriff of Argyll, which was under the control of the Earl's family.

In 1641, following the outbreak of civil war, king Charles I promised to give Canna to the Baronet of Sleat, since the Earl of Argyll's treason (as one of the king's main opponents) would make Canna forfeit; the king's subsequent defeat made this promise moot. In 1654, the war having ended, the Earl of Argyll leased Canna back to Clan Ranald. In the following year, Donald MacDonald, the son of the Clan Ranald leader, married the Baronet's daughter, Janet, quelling any potential dispute over the island.

Ruins of Coroghon Castle on top of the stack at Coroghon

In 1666, following Janet's death, Donald married Marion MacLeod of Harris[note 13], but by 1680 he was seeking a divorce, accusing her of adultery[note 14]. At some point in the late 17th century, a small prison (now called "Coroghon Castle") was constructed on the side of an isolated stack at Coroghon; it was described by Thomas Pennant in 1772 as "a lofty slender rock, that juts into the sea: on one side is a little tower, at a vast height above us, accessible by a narrow and horrible path[note 15]: it seems so small as scarce to be able to contain half a dozen people. Tradition says, that it was built by some jealous regulus[note 16], to confine a handsome wife in[note 17]".[36]

Donald had succeeded to the leadership of Clan Ranald in 1670, and in 1672 was give a new charter of Lairdship for Canna by the new Earl of Argyll. A decade later, Argyll's Rising caused the Earl's feudal authority to be forfeit, making Clan Ranald direct vassals of the king. In 1686, Donald died, and was buried on Canna.

Highland Cattle on Canna

Clan Ranald tenants on Canna joined the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and of 1745, and as a consequence were not looked upon favourably by the king's forces.

According to the Clan Ranald Bard, on 3 April 1746, the Royal Navy ship Baltimore arrived, and demanded (under threat of force) to be given the meat from the best cattle on the Island; 4 days later, complaining that the meat was rotten, the sailors threw it away, and slaughtered 60 cattle themselves.[37][38] The Bard goes on to say that 12 days later[note 18], the Royal Navy ship Commodore arrived, and after receiving warning (from one of the sailors) about the lecherous intentions of the sailors, the women of Canna fled into the countryside and caves, until they were certain that the ship had departed;[37] one pregnant woman miscarried from spending so long in the cold, and died.[37][38]

The Bard himself served as the laird's representative in Canna (the bailie) between 1749 and 1751, at which point he published the first ever book of Scottish Gaelic poetry. He reports of his predecessor that Major General John Campbell, grandson of the former Earl of Argyll, arrived at Canna after returning from chasing Bonnie Prince Charlie; Campbell seized the Bailie of Canna, and took him prisoner to Kerrera[note 19], but returned with him to Canna, slaughtered 40 cows, then took him to London.[37] In London, the Bailie was held prisoner, for having taken part in the rebellion, until the Indemnity Act was passed in 1747;[37] for his troubles, Campbell was made a Lieutenant General.

The view from Sanday to mainland Canna

At the end of the 18th century, kelp harvesting became a major industry on Canna, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars limiting foreign supplies of certain minerals. However, when the wars ended, foreign supplies became available again, and the kelp price duly collapsed, causing a recession; in 1821, several of the inhabitants of Canna chose to escape their poverty by emigrating to Canada[note 20]. Most of the remaining inhabitants moved to Sanday.

The Clan Ranald leader was not exactly a spendthrift, meaning that the lack of income from his tenants drove him into debt; in 1827, he sold Canna to Donald MacNeil.[4] Donald MacNeil and his son[note 21] were no better at fixing the economic pressures, and when the crops failed in 1847, the son resorted to evicting the population of Keill (which had been the main settlement), and replacing them with sheep. in 1861, Canna House was built as the MacNeil home.

The footbridge to Sanday

In 1881, the post-clearance population was recorded as 119 (62 of whom were on Sanday); that year, MacNeil sold the island to Robert Thom, a Glaswegian shipbuilder. Thom carried out a programme of investment, including an oak pier, a footbridge to Sanday, and a Presbyterian Church, St Columba's (though the population remained mostly Roman Catholic). In 1889, counties were formally created in Scotland, on shrieval boundaries, by a dedicated Local Government Act; Canna therefore became part of the new county of Argyll. However, the Act established a boundary review, which decided, in 1891, to move Canna to the county of Inverness, where Eigg already sat.

In 1938, Thom's family sought a sympathetic buyer, selling Canna to John Lorne Campbell, who organised the island as a farm and nature reserve, while transforming Canna House into a private archive of Scottish Gaelic literature, history, and folklore. Campbell lived on Canna until his death in 1996, but donated the island to the National Trust in 1981.[4] In the 1970s, local government reforms abolished the County of Inverness, and moved Canna into Highland.

Campbell's American-born wife and fellow folksong collector Margaret Fay Shaw, remained at Canna House until her own death in 2004, at the age of 101.[39] In the following year a cull against brown rats was ordered, for they had hitherto been allowed to expand to enormous numbers, and now threatened rare Manx shearwaters and human health; Canna is now rat-free.

Some film footage that was recorded by Margaret Fay Shaw in the 1930s and 1940s became part of Solas, a film by Canna House archivist, Fiona J Mackenzie, based on Shaw's life. It was first exhibited in spring 2019.[40]

A single local stamp was issued for Canna in 1958 by then-laird John Lorne Campbell. The stamp shows Compass Hill and two Manx shearwaters, a seabird found in profusion on the island. Their use is optional and all proceeds from the sale – at the island farm and post office — go to the Shipwrecked Mariners Society.[41]

There are population records going back to the 16th century, the earliest of which combine Canna and Sanday.[42] Following the clearances, population numbers remained fairly stable at around 20 to 30 during the second half of the 20th century, but by the time of the 2001 census had dwindled to 6 (or including Sanday, 12).[4] Since then new residents have settled on the island, bringing the 2009 population of Canna and Sanday to around 20 (see below).

In 2015, it was reported that the population of Canna and Sanday had fallen to 19.[45]

In September 2005, it was reported that the population of brown rats on the island had grown to 10,000 and was causing such problems to both the human population and the birdlife, particularly the rare Manx shearwaters, that a complete cull would take place. Because the mice on the island are believed to be a rare and distinct subspecies of woodmouse,[47][48] a breeding population of mice was removed beforehand by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) so that the cull could use rodenticide. By the end of 2006 it was believed that Canna was rat-free and during that summer there was also an encouraging increase in the number of breeding puffins and razorbills; Manx shearwaters were nesting for the first time since 1997.[49]

Within four years of the eradication of rats, a rabbit overpopulation problem was reported.[47] The pests caused damage to archaeological monuments, such as an Iron Age mound and stone remains from the Clearances, as well as the islanders' vegetable gardens.[47][50] The island's only restaurant started serving rabbit meat in pies and with cranberry and pistachio.[47] By 2013 rabbit numbers were estimated to have risen to 16,000[50] and the following year a team of six men engaged in a three-month cull of them, using traps, dogs, ferrets and guns to kill 9,000 rabbits.[51]

In October 2006, the National Trust[52][53][54] decided to invite two families to rent properties on the island, in an effort to attract new skills and spirit to the island community. The invitation was mainly aimed at people with "skills in building, plumbing and gardening". The call was global[55][56] and over 400 responses were received, from places as varied as Germany, Sweden, India and Dubai. From these, Sheila Gunn and John Clare were chosen to move to Canna during summer 2007.[57] They were joined in early 2008 by two more incomers, Neil and Deborah Baker, from Llannon in the Gwendraeth Valley in South Wales. As a gardener, Neil Baker's job was to restore the fine but overgrown gardens of Canna House.[58] Since then, a further cottage was restored and was expected to be occupied by newcomers in 2011. However, in June 2011 it was announced that 12 people were planning to leave the island: Clare and Gunn, the Bakers and their two children, and schoolteacher Eilidh Soe-Paing, her husband and four children. The school would close, temporarily at least, as there would no longer be any school-age children on the island.[59]

The church, which is also owned by the National Trust for Scotland, was restored and converted into a hostel and study centre by the Hebridean Trust. This project was undertaken at the invitation of the owners. The centre is linked to the archive of Scottish Gaelic language, literature, and culture that was collected by literary scholar and former owner of Canna and Sanday, John Lorne Campbell. It was successfully completed and opened in 2001 by Princess Anne. Subsequently, there was water ingress, which caused damage to the interior. This challenge is in the hands of the National Trust for Scotland.

The island enjoys a near-zero crime rate,[60][61] with only a handful of crimes recorded in the last several decades.

In May 2020, the National Trust US Foundation reported that major renovations were underway at Canna House and its gardens; the facility was originally expected to reopen in 2021. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, however, the restoration was delayed and it was unlikely to reopen until 2022.[62]