Chinese sword

Jian of Yue king Zhezhi Yuyi

Sword of Helü of Wu

Late Spring and Autumn period spear and sword

Close up of sword pattern

Ornate sword hilts from the Spring and Autumn period

Knives were found in Fu Hao's tomb, dated c. 1200 BC.[4]

Bronze jians appeared during the Western Zhou. The blades were a mere 28 to 46 cm (11 to 18 in) long. These short stabbing weapons were used as a last defense when all other options had failed.[5]

By the late Spring and Autumn period, jians lengthened to about 56 cm (22 in). At this point, at least some soldiers used the jian rather than the dagger-axe due to its greater flexibility and portability.[5] China started producing steel in the 6th century BC. Still, iron and steel tools were not produced in significant quantities until much later.[6] By around 500 BC, however, the sword and shield combination began to be regarded as superior to the spear and dagger-axe.[7]

The early bronze swords are seldom over 50 cm (20 in) in length and are sometimes referred to as "short swords". A rather sudden development, perhaps in the mid-third century BC, is the bronze "long sword", typically about a metre long. An example from the First Emperor's mausoleum... Most iron swords are also long, and the development of the long bronze sword is often considered to be related to the development of the long iron sword.[8]

— Donald Wagner

Iron and steel swords of 80 to 100 cm (31 to 39 in) in length appeared during the mid Warring States period in the states of Chu, Han, and Yan. Most weapons were still made of bronze, but iron and steel were starting to become more common.[6] By the end of the 3rd century BC, the Chinese had learned how to produce quench-hardened steel swords, relegating bronze swords to ceremonial pieces.[17]

The Zhan Guo Ce states that the state of Han made the best weapons, capable of cleaving through the strongest armour, shields, leather boots and helmets.[18]

Warring States sword guards

Sword dances are first mentioned shortly after the end of the Qin dynasty.[24] Swords up to 110 cm (43 in) in length began to appear.[25]

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  Warring States bronze jians
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  Sword of Goujian
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  Warring States iron jian
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  Qin dynasty jian
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  Qin bronze jians
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  Qin jian

Han dynasty steel and bronze swords

Han jian and scabbard

Han jian and scabbard

The jian was mentioned as one of the "Five Weapons" during the Han dynasty, the other four being dao, spear, halberd, and staff. Another version of the Five Weapons lists the bow and crossbow as one weapon, the jian and dao as one weapon, in addition to halberd, shield, and armour.[26]

The jian was a popular personal weapon during the Han era, and a class of swordsmen emerged who made their living through fencing. Sword fencing was also a popular pastime for aristocrats. A 37-chapter manual known as the Way of the Jian is known to have existed but is no longer extant. South and central China were said to have produced the best sworders.[27] Han dynasty swords made between the 1st and 2nd centuries AD have been found in Japan; a ring-pommel dao with an inscription "thirty-fold refined" and a jian with the inscription "fifty-fold refined". A jian in Nara Prefecture was also found with an inscription saying it was produced in the Zhongping era (184-189 AD) and "hundredfold refined."[28]

There existed a weapon called the "Horse Beheading Jian" because it was supposedly able to cut off a horse's head.[29] However, another source says it was an execution tool used on special occasions rather than a military weapon.[30]

As far as we are aware today, all the ancient Chinese iron swords were of wrought iron or steel: none were cast. It seems clear enough that a competent smith could make a wrought-iron or steel sword of any reasonable length the customer desired or could pay for. Measurements in the 70-100 cm range seem to be the most common. Bust swords as long as 1.2 m and even 1.4 m are known... The longer length of an iron sword must have given a warrior an immediate advantage over one with a short bronze sword.[8]

— Donald Wagner

The ring-pommel backsword (環首刀) also became widespread as a weapon of cavalry warfare during the Han era. Being single-edged, the backsword had the advantage of a thickened dull side that strengthen the whole sword, making it less prone to breaking. When paired with a shield, it made for a suitable replacement for the jian. Hence it became the more popular choice as time went on. After the Han, sword dances using the dao rather than the jian are mentioned to have occurred. Archaeological samples range from 86 to 114 cm (34 to 45 in) in length.[31]

An account of Duan Jiong's tactical formation in 167 AD specifies that he arranged "…three ranks of halberds (長鏃 changzu), swordsmen (利刃 liren) and spearmen (長矛 changmao), supported by crossbows (強弩 qiangnu), with light cavalry (輕騎 jingji) on each wing."[32]

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  Han jians
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  Han jian and dao
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  Western Han jian
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  Han jian with elaborate sword guard
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  Dian Kingdom bronze dagger
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  Han knives and jians

Jin dynasty (266–420) dao

Swords of idiosyncratic sizes are mentioned. One individual named Chen apparently wielded a great sword over two meters in length.[33]

Sun Quan's wife had over a hundred female attendants armed with daos.[34]

By the end of the Three Kingdoms the dao had completely overtaken the jian as the primary close combat weapon.[35] The lighter and less durable double-edged jian entered the domain of court dancers, officials, and expert warriors.[36]

Sui dynasty swords

In the 6th century, Qimu Huaiwen introduced to Northern Qi the process of 'co-fusion' steelmaking, which used metals of different carbon contents to create steel. Apparently, daos made using this method were capable of penetrating 30 armour lamellae. It's not clear if the armour was of iron or leather.

Huaiwen made sabres [dao 刀] of 'overnight iron' [su tie 宿鐵]. His method was to anneal [shao 燒] powdered cast iron [sheng tie jing 生鐵精] with layers of soft [iron] blanks [ding 鋌, presumably thin plates]. After several days the result is steel [gang 剛]. Soft iron was used for the spine of the sabre; he washed it in the urine of the Five Sacrificial Animals and quench-hardened it in the fat of the Five Sacrificial Animals: [Such a sabre] could penetrate thirty armour lamellae [zha 札]. The 'overnight soft blanks' [Su rou ting 宿柔鋌] cast today [in the Sui period?] by the metallurgists of Xiangguo 襄國 represent a vestige of [Qiwu Huaiwen's] technique. The sabres which they make are still extremely sharp, but they cannot penetrate thirty lamellae.[37]

Dao with ring pommel, length: 71cm, Tang dynasty

The dao was separated into four categories during the Tang dynasty. These were the Ceremonial Dao 儀刀, Defense Dao 障刀, Cross Dao 橫刀, and Divided Dao 陌刀. The Ceremonial Dao was a court item usually decorated with gold and silver. It was also known as the "Imperial Sword". The Defense Dao does not have any specifications but its name is self-explanatory. The Cross Dao was a waist weapon worn on the belt, hence its older name, the Belt Dao. It was often carried as a sidearm by crossbowmen.[38] The Divided Dao, also called a Long Dao (long saber), was a cross between a polearm and a saber. It consisted of a 91 cm (36 in) blade fixed to a long 120 cm (47 in) handle ending in an iron butt point, although exceptionally large weapons reaching 3 m (9.8 ft) in length and weighing 10.2 kg (22 lb) have been mentioned.[39] Divided daos were wielded by elite Tang vanguard forces and used to spearhead attacks.[29]

In one army, there are 12,500 officers and men. Ten thousand men in eight sections bearing Belt Daos; Two thousand five hundred men in two sections with Divided Daos.[29]

— Taibai Yinjing

Jin dynasty (1115-1234) iron jian

Some warriors and bandits duel wielded daos to break deadlocks in confined terrain during the late Song dynasty.[40]

According to the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, written in 1183, the "Horse Beheading Dao" (zhanmadao) was a two handed saber with a 93.6 cm (36.9 in) blade, 31.2 cm (12.3 in) hilt, and ring pommel.[41]

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  Song soldiers carrying daos
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  Song stone relief of a swordsman wearing mountain pattern and mail armour
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  Truncheon, Song dynasty
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  Liao and Jin swords
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  Jin dao sabre
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  Yuan dao

Chinese style jian from the Mongol Empire era

Under the Yuan dynasty, the jian experienced a resurgence and was used more often.[42]

Jurchen swords

Qing dynasty jian with jade hilt

The dao continued to fill the role of the basic close combat weapon.[43] The jian fell out of favor again in the Ming era but saw limited use by a small number of arms specialists. It was otherwise known for its qualities as a marker of scholarly refinement.[42]

The "Horse Beheading Dao" was described in Ming sources as a 96 cm (38 in) blade attached to a 128 cm (50 in) shaft, essentially a glaive. It's speculated that the Swede Frederick Coyett was talking about this weapon when he described Zheng Chenggong's troops wielding "with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man".[44]

Some were armed with bows and arrows hanging down their backs; others had nothing save a shield on the left arm and a good sword in the right hand; while many wielded with both hands a formidable battle sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man. Everyone was protected over the upper part of the body with a coat of iron scales, fitting below one another like the slates of a roof, the arms and legs bare. This afforded complete protection from rifle bullets (mistranslation-should read "small arms") and yet left ample freedom to move, as those coats only reached down to the knees and were very flexible at all the joints. The archers formed Koxinga's best troops and depended much on them. Even at a distance, they contrived to handle their weapons with such great skill that they nearly eclipsed the riflemen. The shield bearers were used instead of cavalry. Every tenth man of them is a leader, who takes charge of, and presses his men to force themselves into the enemy ranks. With bent heads and their bodies hidden behind the shields, they try to break through the opposing ranks with such fury and dauntless courage as if each one still had a spare body left at home. They continually press onwards, notwithstanding many are shot down; not stopping to consider, but ever rushing forward like mad dogs, not even looking round to see whether their comrades follow them or not. Those with the sword-sticks—called soapknives by the Hollanders—render the same service as our lancers in preventing all breaking through of the enemy and, in this way, establishing perfect order in the ranks; but when the enemy has been thrown into disorder, the Sword-bearers follow this up with fearful massacre amongst the fugitives.[45]

— Frederick Coyett

Qi Jiguang deployed his soldiers in a 12-man 'mandarin duck' formation, which consisted of four pikemen, two men carrying daos with a great and small shield, two 'wolf brush' wielders, a rearguard officer, and a porter.[46]

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  Ming whip, truncheon, and dao
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  Ming truncheon
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  Ming dao
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  Ming soldiers carrying a dao and jian
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  Ming soldier carrying a jian

• Chinese swordsmanship
• Chinese armour
• Chinese siege weapons
• Weapons and armor in Chinese mythology
• Japanese sword
• Indian sword
• Korean sword

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• Behr, Wolfgang (2002). "Stray loanword gleanings from two Ancient Chinese fictional texts". 16e Journées de Linguistique d'Asie Orientale, Centre de Recherches Linguistiques Sur l'Asie Orientale (E.H.E.S.S.), Paris: 1–6.
• Brindley, Erica Fox (2015), Ancient China and the Yue, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-08478-0.
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• Lorge, Peter A. (2011), Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-87881-4
• Lorge, Peter (2015), The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty, Cambridge University Press
• Milburn, Olivia (2010), The Glory of Yue
• Peers, C.J. (1990), Ancient Chinese Armies: 1500-200BC, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (1992), Medieval Chinese Armies: 1260-1520, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (1995), Imperial Chinese Armies (1): 200BC-AD589, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (1996), Imperial Chinese Armies (2): 590-1260AD, Osprey Publishing
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• Peers, Chris (2013), Battles of Ancient China, Pen & Sword Military
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• http://www.shadowofleaves.com/Chinese_Sword_History.htm
• http://www.chinesesword.net/Swordplay/Swordplay1E.htm