1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries

From February 8 to June 14, 1988, voters of the Democratic Party chose its nominee for president in the 1988 United States presidential election.

1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries

February 8 to June 14, 1988

4,105 delegates to the 1988 Democratic National Convention
2,053 (majority) votes needed to win
 
Candidate Michael Dukakis Jesse Jackson Al Gore
Home state Massachusetts South Carolina Tennessee
Delegate count 1,792 1,023 374
Contests won 30 13 7
Popular vote 10,024,101 6,941,816 3,190,992
Percentage 42.4% 29.3% 13.5%

 
Candidate Paul Simon Dick Gephardt
Home state Illinois Missouri
Delegate count 161 137
Contests won 1 3
Popular vote 1,107,692 1,452,331
Percentage 4.7% 6.1%

First place by convention roll call

Previous Democratic nominee

Walter Mondale

Democratic nominee

Michael Dukakis

Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis was selected as the nominee through a series of primary elections and caucuses culminating in the 1988 Democratic National Convention held from July 18 to July 21, 1988, in Atlanta, Georgia.

Background

Having been badly defeated in the 1984 presidential election, the Democrats in 1985 and 1986 were eager to find a new approach to win the presidency. They created the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), with the aim of recruiting a candidate for the 1988 election.

The large gains in the 1986 mid-term elections (which resulted in the Democrats taking back control of the Senate after six years of Republican rule) and the continuing Iran–Contra affair gave Democrats confidence in the run-up to the primary season.

Candidates

Nominee

Candidate Most recent office Home state Campaign Popular

vote

Contests won Running mate
Michael Dukakis Governor of Massachusetts
(1975–1979,
1983–1991)
Massachusetts
Massachusetts

(Campaign)

10,024,101
(42.37%)
30
NH, MN, ME primary, VT primary
FL, HI caucus, ID caucus, MD
MA, RI, TX, WA
AS caucus, CO caucus, KS caucus
CT, WI, AZ caucus, NY, UT caucus, PA, IN
OH, NE, OR, CA, MT, NJ, NM, ND
Lloyd Bentsen

Withdrew during primaries or convention

Candidate Most recent office Home state Campaign

Withdrawal date

Popular vote Contests won
Jesse Jackson Civil rights leader
South Carolina

Eliminated at convention: July 21, 1988
(Campaign)
6,941,816
(29.34%)
13
AL, GA, LA, MS, VA
AK caucus, SC, PR
VT caucus, MI caucus, DE caucus, DC
Al Gore U.S. Senator
from Tennessee
(1985–1993)

Tennessee

Withdrew: April 21, 1988
(Campaign)
3,190,992
(13.49%)
7
WY caucus, AR, KY
NV caucus, NC, OK, TN
Paul Simon U.S. Senator
from Illinois
(1985–1997)
Illinois
Illinois

Withdrew: April 7, 1988
1,107,692
(4.68%)
1
IL
Dick Gephardt U.S. Representative
from Missouri
(1977–2005)
Missouri
Missouri

Withdrew: March 29, 1988
1,452,331
(6.14%)
3
IA caucus, SD, MO
Gary Hart U.S. Senator
from Colorado
(1975–1987)
Colorado
Colorado

Suspended campaign: May 8, 1987
Re-entered: December 12, 1987
Withdrew: March 12, 1988
390,200
(1.65%)
0

Candidates who received less than 1%

Withdrew before primaries

Candidate Experience Home state Campaign

Withdrawal date

Pat Schroeder U.S. Representative
from Colorado
(1973–1997)

Colorado
Withdrew: September 28, 1987
Joe Biden U.S. Senator
from Delaware
(1973–2009)

Delaware

Withdrew: September 23, 1987
(Campaign)

Declined

Polling

Nationwide polling

Before 1987

Poll source Publication Sample

size

Mario Cuomo
Gary Hart
Lee Iacocca
Jesse Jackson
Other/Undecided
Gallup[lower-alpha 1][2] Jan 1986 ? ? 23% 46% 17% 15% 99%
Gallup[lower-alpha 1][2] April 11–14, 1986 615 RV ±6.0% 25% 39% 14% 18% 104%[lower-alpha 2]
Gallup[lower-alpha 1][3] July 11–14, 1986 729 RV ±5.0% 22% 34% 26% 17% 101%[lower-alpha 3]

1987

Poll source Dates Sample
size
Margin
of error
Bruce Babbitt
Joe Biden
Michael Dukakis
Dick Gephardt
Al Gore
Gary Hart
Jesse Jackson
Paul Simon
Other/Undecided
Gallup[4] Apr. 10–13, 1987 ? ? 2% 4% 3% 2% 46% 18% 25%
May 8, 1987: Gary Hart suspends his campaign
Los Angeles Times May 7–9, 1987 393 RV ±6.0% 2% 3% 12% 6% 6% 7% 3% 61%[lower-alpha 4]
December 16, 1987: Gary Hart re-enters the race
Washington Post/ABC[5] Dec. 15–17, 1987 318 RV ±6.0% 2% 15% 2% 5% 30% 20% 8% 18%
YCS[6] Dec. 17–18, 1987 ? ? 14% 4% 30% 22% 7% 23%
Gallup[4][6] Dec. 17–28, 1987 ? ? 10% 2% 31% 13% 10% 25%

1988

Poll source Publication Sample

size

Bruce Babbitt
Michael Dukakis
Dick Gephardt
Al Gore
Gary Hart
Jesse Jackson
Paul Simon
Other/Undecided
YCS[6] Jan. 3–6, 1988 ? 11% 4% 28% 17% 13% 27%
CBS News/New York Times[6] Jan. 17–21, 1988 ? 2% 6% 4% 4% 23% 17% 9% 35%
Washington Post/ABC[6] Jan. 17–23, 1988 ? 3% 11% 4% 23% 25% 12% 22%
Gallup[4][6] Jan. 22–24, 1988 560 3% 16% 9% 6% 23% 15% 9% 19%
Harris Interactive[6] Jan. 7–26, 1988 ? 15% 6% 19% 15% 8% 37%
Gordon Black[6] Jan. 21–28, 1988 ? 13% 9% 17% 13% 7% 41%
CBS News/New York Times[6] Jan. 30–31, 1988 447 8% 4% 18% 16% 6% 48%
February 8: Iowa caucus
Washington Post/ABC[7] Feb. 11–13, 1988 383 LV 6% 40% 16% 7% 3% 7% 17% 5%
CBS News[7] Feb. 12–13, 1988 483 LV 3% 42% 18% 4% 4% 4% 12% 13%
Gallup[7] Feb. 12–13, 1988 756 LV 5% 39% 18% 5% 3% 7% 16% 7%
February 16: New Hampshire primary
CBS News/New York Times[lower-alpha 5][8] Feb. 17–21, 1988 933 1% 21% 12% 8% 10% 13% 6% 30%
March 8: Super Tuesday
CBS News/New York Times[8] Mar. 19–22, 1988 ? 29% 8% 14% 22% 6% 21%

Head-to-head polling

Poll source Publication Sample

size

Margin

of error

Mario Cuomo
Gary Hart
Lee Iacocca
Jesse Jackson
Other/Undecided
Gallup[3] June 9–16, 1986 452 RV ±6.0% 30% 55% 15%
59% 28% 13%
75% 14% 11%

Statewide and regional polling

South

Poll source Dates Sample
size
Margin
of error
Bruce Babbitt
Joe Biden
Mario Cuomo
Michael Dukakis
Dick Gephardt
Al Gore
Gary Hart
Jesse Jackson
Paul Simon
Other/Undecided
Atlanta Journal-Constitution[9][lower-alpha 6] Sep. 18–28, 1987 6,452 A ±2.0% 3% 3% 9% 5% 13% 27% 5% 35%[lower-alpha 7]
17% 27% 11% 45%[lower-alpha 8]

California

Poll source Dates Sample
size
Margin
of error
Bruce Babbitt
Joe Biden
Michael Dukakis
Dick Gephardt
Al Gore
Gary Hart
Jesse Jackson
Paul Simon
Other/Undecided
Teichner/Sacramento Bee[10] May 8–9, 1987 510 RV ±4.0% 3% 4% 5% 2% 2% 34% 9% 2% 39%
2% 4% 8% 5% 5% 13% 3% 40%

Maryland

Poll source Dates Sample
size
Margin
of error
Bruce Babbitt
Joe Biden
Michael Dukakis
Dick Gephardt
Al Gore
Gary Hart
Jesse Jackson
Paul Simon
Other/Undecided
Savitz Research Center[11] October 9–14, 1987 559 RV ±4.0% 2% 12% 5% 6% 35% 6% 35%[lower-alpha 9]

New Hampshire

Poll source Dates Sample
size
Margin
of error
Bruce Babbitt
Joe Biden
Mario Cuomo
Michael Dukakis
Dick Gephardt
Al Gore
Gary Hart
Jesse Jackson
Chuck Robb
Paul Simon
Other/Undecided
Bannon Research[12] Sep.–Oct. 1986 501 LV ±5.0% 1% 1% 26% 1% 47% 6% 1% 19%
1% 1% 19% 27% 1% 33% 3% 17%

Pre-primary events

The Hart-Rice affair

Former U.S. Senator Gary Hart delivers a speech in 1987. Hart was the runner-up for the 1984 Democratic nomination and front-runner for 1988, but his campaign faltered and collapsed after revelations of an extra-marital affair.

The Democratic front-runner for most of 1987 was former Colorado Senator Gary Hart.[13] Hart had made a strong showing in the 1984 primaries and, after Mondale's defeat in the presidential election, had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win.[14]

However, questions and rumors about possible extramarital affairs and about past debts dogged Hart's campaign.[15] One of the great myths is that Senator Hart challenged the media to "put a tail" on him and that reporters then took him up on that challenge. In fact, Hart had told E. J. Dionne of The New York Times that if reporters followed him around, they would "be bored". However, in a separate investigation, the Miami Herald claimed to have received an anonymous tip from a friend of Donna Rice that Rice was involved with Hart. It was only after Hart had been discovered that the Herald reporters found Hart's quote in a pre-print of The New York Times Magazine.[16]

On May 8, 1987, a week after the Donna Rice story broke, Hart dropped out of the race.[15]

In December 1987, Hart surprised many political pundits by resuming his presidential campaign.[17] He again led in the polls for the Democratic nomination, both nationally and in Iowa. However, the allegations of adultery and reports of irregularities in his campaign financing had delivered a fatal blow to his candidacy, and he fared poorly in the early primaries before dropping out again.[18]

The Hart scandal would later be depicted in the 2018 film The Front Runner, with Hugh Jackman portraying Hart.

Biden plagiarism scandals

Senator Joe Biden was another early contender who was forced to withdraw before the primaries when multiple plagiarism scandals derailed his candidacy.

Delaware Senator Joe Biden led a highly competitive campaign which ended in controversy after he was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock, then-leader of the British Labour Party.[19] Though Biden had correctly credited the original author in all speeches but one, the one of which he failed to make mention of the originator was caught on video and sent to the press by members of the Dukakis campaign. In the video Biden is filmed repeating a stump speech by Kinnock, with only minor modifications. Michael Dukakis later acknowledged that his campaign was responsible for leaking the tape, and two members of his staff resigned.[20]

It was also discovered that Biden had been guilty of plagiarism years before, while a student at the Syracuse University College of Law in the 1960s. Though Biden professed his integrity, the impression lingering in the media as the result of this double punch would lead him to drop out of the race.[20] He formally suspended his campaign on September 28, 1987.

The Delaware Supreme Court's Board on Professional Responsibility would later clear Biden of the law school plagiarism charges.[21]

After campaigns in 2008 and 2020, Biden was elected Vice President in 2008 and President in 2020.

Endorsements

Michael Dukakis

Jesse Jackson

Al Gore

Dick Gephardt

Gary Hart

Paul Simon

Results

In the Iowa caucuses, Gephardt finished first, Simon finished second, and Dukakis finished third. In the New Hampshire primary, Dukakis finished first, Gephardt finished second, and Simon finished third. Dukakis and Gore campaigned hard against Gephardt with negative ads, and eventually the United Auto Workers retracted their endorsement of Gephardt, who was heavily dependent on labor union backing.

In the Super Tuesday races, Dukakis won six primaries, Gore five, Jackson five and Gephardt one, with Gore and Jackson splitting the southern states. The next week, Simon won Illinois. 1988 is tied with 1992 as the race with the most candidates winning primaries since the McGovern reforms of 1971. Gore's effort to paint Dukakis as too liberal for the general election proved unsuccessful and he eventually withdrew. Jackson focused more on getting enough delegates to make sure African-American interests were represented in the platform than on winning outright.[42] Dukakis eventually emerged as the party's nominee.

Date[43][44]
(daily totals)
Total pledged
delegates[45]
Contest Delegates won and popular vote Total
Michael Dukakis Jesse Jackson Al Gore Paul Simon Dick Gephardt Others
February 8 45 Iowa caucus[46] 12
27,750

11,000

80
15
33,375
18
39,125

13,625
124,955
February 16 16 New Hampshire[47] 8
44,112

9,615

8,400
4
21,094
4
24,513

15,179
122,913
February 23 68 Minnesota[48] 25
8,990
15
5,270
274 13
4,766

1,970

5,281
26,551
17 South Dakota[48] 7
22,349

3,867

5,993

3,992
10
31,184

4,221
71,606
February 28 20 Maine primary[49] 8
3,170
7
2,722

139

378

282

2,053
8,744
March 1 12 Vermont Caucus[50] 6
582
6
696

6

120
1,404
March 5 11 Wyoming caucus[51] 4
76

38
4
88

6
3
61

1
270
March 8
(Super Tuesday)
(1099)
47 Alabama[52]
31,206
25
176,764
22
151,739

3,063

30,214

12,845
405,831
32 Arkansas[53] 8
94,103
7
85,003
16
185,758

9,020

59,711

63,949
101 Florida[54] 68
520,868
33
254,825

161,106

27,592

182,779

121,606
64 Georgia[55]
97,179
29
247,831
24
201,490

8,388

41,489

26,375
17 Hawaii caucus[56] 10
2,716
7
1,739

58

46

98

318
16 Idaho caucus[57] 7
144
4
73

32

16

3

112
48 Kentucky[58] 11
59,433
9
49,667
27
145,988

9,393

28,982

25,258
52 Louisiana[59] 10
95,661
23
221,522
18
174,971

5,153

67,029

60,683
56 Maryland[60] 34
242,479
22
152,642

46,063

16,013

42,059

16,631
93 Massachusetts[61] 71
418,256
22
133,385

31,631

26,176

72,943

31,552
40 Mississippi[62] 1
29,941
24
160,651
15
120,364

2,118

19,693

26,650
71 Missouri[63]
61,303
18
106,386

14,549

21,433
53
305,287

18,857
12 Nevada caucus[64] 3
427
3
382
4
491

20

33
2
285
68 North Carolina[65] 16
137,993
25
224,177
27
235,669

8,032

37,553

36,534
39 Oklahoma[66] 9
66,278

52,417
20
162,584

6,901
10
82,596

21,951
20 Rhode Island[67] 16
34,159
4
7,369

1,932

1,392

2,013

1,958
56 Tennessee[68]
19,348
12
119,248
44
416,861

2,647

8,470

9,740
145 Texas[69] 61
579,713
46
433,335
38
357,764

34,499

240,158

121,576
62 Virginia[70] 15
80,183
32
164,709
15
81,419

7,045

15,935

15,608
53 Washington[71] 29
3,784
24
3,083

166

300

78

1,074
6 American Samoa caucus[72] 4
(39%)

(7%)
2
(22%)

(32%)
March 10 10 Alaska caucus[73] 3
774
4
882

48

18

15

791
March 12 36 Colorado caucus[74] 17
4,852
13
3,720

307

14
6
1,867
37 South Carolina[75]
1,018
22
8,114
7
2,777

36

307
8
2,853
March 15 160 Illinois[76] 29
245,289
57
484,233

77,265
74
635,219

35,108

23,816
March 19 34[lower-alpha 10] Kansas caucus[77] 15
278
13
235
7
125

12

114
March 20 40 Puerto Rico[78] 11
70,733
13
87,757
7
45,361
9
57,639

9,159

3,753
March 24 ? Connecticut[79] ?
(58%)

(28%)

(8%)

(1%)

(5%)
March 26 127 Michigan caucus[80] 45
61,674
82
113,777

4,253

4,466

27,222

326
April 5 Wisconsin[81]
(47%)

(30%)

(17%)

(5%)

(1%)
April 16 36[82] Arizona caucus[83]
(54%)

(38%)

(5%)

(1%)

(2%)
April 18 15[84] Delaware caucus[85]
51.5 (27.25%)

86.5 (45.77%)

4 (2.12%)

47 (24.87%)
April 19 243[lower-alpha 11] New York[86] 142
801,457
87
585,076
5
157,559

17,011

14,083
April 25 ? Utah caucus[87]
(72%)

(15%)

(13%)
April 26 161 Pennsylvania[88] 114
1,002,480
47
411,260

44,542

9,692

7,254

32,462
May 3 79[89] Indiana[90] 63
(70%)
16
(22%)

(3%)

(2%)

(3%)
159[91] Ohio[92] 115
(63%)
41
(27%)

(2%)

(1%)
3
(7%)[lower-alpha 12]
16[93] Washington, D.C.[94] 3
(18%)
13
(80%)

(1%)

(1%)
May 10 ? Nebraska[95]
(63%)

(26%)

(1%)

(1%)

(3%)

(6%)
? West Virginia[96]
(75%)

(13%)

(3%)

(1%)

(2%)

(6%)
May 17 ? Oregon[97]
(57%)

(38%)

(1%)

(1%)

(2%)

(1%)
June 7 272 California[98] 173
1,910,808
99
1,102,093

56,645

43,771

25,417
19[99] Montana[100] 15
(69%)
4
(22%)

(2%)

(1%)

(3%)

(3%)
100 New Jersey[101] 66
414,829
34
213,705

18,062

7,706
24 New Mexico[102] 16
(61%)
8
(28%)

(3%)

(2%)

(6%)
June 14 ? North Dakota[103]
(85%)

(15%)
Total[104] 1,427
10,024,101 (42.37%)
1,046
6,941,816 (29.34%)
307
3,190,992 (13.49%)
115
1,452,331 (6.14%)
98
1,107,692 (4.68%)

940,431 (3.98%)

Convention and general election

The Democratic Party Convention was held in Atlanta, Georgia, July 18–21. The Dukakis nominating speech delivered by Arkansas governor and future president Bill Clinton was widely criticized as too long and tedious.[105]

Texas State Treasurer Ann Richards (who two years later became the state governor) delivered a memorable keynote address in which she uttered the lines "Poor George [Bush], he can't help it, he was born with a silver foot in his mouth." Six years later, Bush's son George W. Bush would deny Richards re-election as Texas Governor.

With most candidates having withdrawn and asking their delegates to vote for Dukakis, the tally for president was as follows:[106]

Jesse Jackson's campaign believed that since they had come in a respectable second, Jackson was entitled to the vice presidential spot. Dukakis refused, and gave the spot to Lloyd Bentsen.

Bentsen was selected in large part to secure the state of Texas and its large electoral vote for the Democrats. During the vice-presidential debate, Republican candidate and Senator Dan Quayle ignored a head-on confrontation with Bentsen (aside from the "Jack Kennedy" comparison) and spent his time attacking Dukakis.

See also

Notes

  1. Poll combines first- and second-choice responses.
  2. 7% for Tom Bradley, 6% each for Bill Bradley and Jay Rockefeller, 5% for Chuck Robb, 4% for Dianne Feinstein, 2% each for Dale Bumpers, Sam Nunn, Pat Schroeder, and Mark White, 1% each for Bruce Babbitt, Joe Biden, and Dick Gephardt, and <1% for Tony Coelho.
  3. 7% each for Bill Bradley and Tom Bradley, 6% for Jay Rockefeller, 3% each for Chuck Robb, Dianne Feinstein, and Mark White. Less than 2% each for Sam Nunn, Pat Schroeder, Dale Bumpers, Bill Clinton, Dick Gephardt, Bruce Babbitt, Joe Biden, and Tony Coelho.
  4. Includes 7% for Mario Cuomo and 3% for Ted Kennedy, neither of whom were included in the suggested responses, 1% each for Bill Bradley, Lee Iacocca, Sam Nunn, John Glenn, Terry Sanford, and Howard Baker (Republican).
  5. This poll intentionally oversampled voters in border and Southern states in advance of Super Tuesday.
  6. Poll of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessse, Texas, and Virginia.
  7. Including 5% for Pat Schroeder.
  8. Including 14% for Sam Nunn.
  9. 12% for "someone else."
  10. The delegate totals add up to 35.
  11. The delegate total adds up to 234.
  12. 1 delegate each for favorite sons Rep. James Traficant, Douglas Applegate and since-withdrawn candidate Gary Hart

References

  1. "Kennedy, Citing Senate Goals, Rules Out '88 Presidential Bid". The New York Times. December 20, 1985.
  2. Gallup, George Jr. (4 May 1986). "Cuomo gains as Democratic pick". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. p. 200. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  3. Gallup, George Jr. (7 Aug 1986). "Iacocca gains on Hart as choice of Democrats". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. p. 27. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  4. "Dukakis surging as Hart weakens". 28 Jan 1988. p. 1. Retrieved 6 Aug 2023.
  5. "Poll shows Hart on top; Dole closing in on Bush". The Greenville News. 19 Dec 1987. p. 10. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  6. "US President - D Primares (Polling)". OurCampaigns. 31 Aug 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  7. "Politics 88 : Dole Tops Bush in Gallup Poll; Dukakis Leads". The Los Angeles Times. 15 Feb 1988. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  8. Bartels, Larry M.; Broh, C. Anthony (Winter 1989). "A Review: The 1988 Presidential Primaries". The Public Opinion Quarterly. 53 (4): 563–589. doi:10.1086/269172. JSTOR 2749359 via JSTOR.
  9. Mashek, John W. (4 Oct 1987). "Jackson leads, but undecided reigns in South". Atlanta Journal Constitution. p. 1. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  10. "California poll shows no front-runner". Desert Dispatch. 11 May 1987. p. 11. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  11. Himowitz, Michael J. (27 Oct 1987). "Jackson, Bush leading now among Marylanders". Baltimore Evening Sun. p. 1. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  12. Hoy, Anne Q. (5 Nov 1986). "Babbitt buoyed by New Hampshire presidential polls". Arizona Republic. p. 8. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
  13. John Dillin for The Christian Science Monitor. 23 February 1987 Cuomo's `no' opens door for dark horses
  14. E. J. Dionne Jr. (May 3, 1987). "Gary Hart The Elusive Front-Runner". The New York Times, pg. SM28.
  15. Johnston, David; King, Wayne; Nordheimer, Jon (1987-05-09). "Courting Danger: The Fall Of Gary Hart". The New York Times.
  16. "The Gary Hart Story: How It Happened". The Miami Herald. May 10, 1987. Archived from the original on August 24, 2014. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
  17. Bob Drogin for the Los Angeles Times. 16 December 1987 Hart Back in Race for President : Political World Stunned, Gives Him Little Chance
  18. Associated Press, in the Los Angeles Times. 13 March 1988 Quits Campaign : 'The People 'Have Decided,' Hart Declares
  19. "Biden Is Facing Growing Debate On His Speeches". The New York Times. September 16, 1987.
  20. Thompson, Alex; Pager, Tyler (January 19, 2021). "They failed spectacularly in '88. Now, these Biden aides are getting sweet redemption". Politico.
  21. "Professional Board Clears Biden In Two Allegations of Plagiarism". The New York Times. May 29, 1989. p. 29.
  22. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 298. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Appearing at the press conference were Michigan Senator Don Riegle and three other members of the state's congressional delegation, all endorsing him.
  23. "Jackson: I Deserve More Superdelegates". 17 June 1988.
  24. William Raspberry (1988-04-29). "JESSE JACKSON'S VICTORY". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. ISSN 0190-8286. OCLC 1330888409.
  25. Wagner, John (February 15, 2016). "Bernie Sanders highlights his 1988 support of Jesse Jackson's White House run". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2021.
  26. Oreskes, Michael (9 September 1987). "Chicago's Mayor Endorses Jackson". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  27. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 281. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The black political leaders who had supported Mondale in 1984, such as Mayor Richard Arrington of Birmingham, were now fully in the Jackson camp.
  28. "User Clip: Bill Cosby for Jesse Jackson | C-SPAN.org". www.c-span.org. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
  29. "Paul Wellstone's Legacy". In These Times. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
  30. "For Jesse Jackson and His Campaign". The Nation. 1988-04-16. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
  31. Our Campaigns - GA US President - D Primary Race - Mar 08, 1988
  32. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 286. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. ...Gore was moving around the South gathering endorsements - particularly from prominent state politicians such as Speaker Tom Murphy of Georgia, Speaker Gib Lewis of Texas, Speaker Jon Mills of Florida
  33. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 286. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. ...Gore was moving around the South gathering endorsements - particularly from prominent state politicians such as Speaker Tom Murphy of Georgia, Speaker Gib Lewis of Texas, Speaker Jon Mills of Florida
  34. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's Hour". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 255. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Congressman Tony Coelho paid a visit and also came back with the view that Gephardt needed a much sharper focus to his message that Iowa voters could identify with
  35. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas...
  36. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas...
  37. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma...
  38. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma and Claude Pepper in Florida was a valued credential.
  39. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 299. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Congressman Sander Levin of Michigan, a Gephardt supporter...
  40. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "13: Too Much Damage to Control". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 195. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. There were other phone calls, too, including repeated ones from actor Warren Beatty, a longtime supporter and friend going back to the McGovern campaign of 1971-72
  41. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's hour". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 263. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Simon got a lift from the endorsement of the Des Moines Register, influential with the sort of political activists who attended the caucuses.
  42. Williams, Juan (1988-07-17). "Waiting for The Jackson Reaction; Will Jesse End His Crusade With a Bang or a Whimper?". The Washington Post. p. C1.
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