Eurabia conspiracy theory

"Eurabia" (portmanteau of Europe and Arabia) is a far-right, anti-Muslim conspiracy theory that posits that globalist entities, led by French and Arab powers, aim to Islamize and Arabize Europe, thereby weakening its existing culture and undermining its previous alliances with the United States and Israel.[1][2]

Not to be confused with Eurybia (disambiguation).
The putative "Eurabia", consisting of the combined area of the European Union (current and prospective members), the European Free Trade Area, the members and some observer states of the Arab League (except Comoros), Israel, and the United Kingdom.

The theory was developed by Bat Ye'or (the pen name of Gisèle Littman) in the early 2000s and it is described in her 2005 book titled Eurabia: The Euro‐Arab Axis.[1] Benjamin Lee of the Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats at the University of Lancaster describes her work as arguing that Europe "has surrendered to Islam and is in a state of submission (described as dhimmitude) in which Europe is forced to deny its own culture, stand silently by in the face of Muslim atrocities, accept Muslim immigration, and pay tribute through various types of economic assistance." According to the theory, the blame rests with a range of groups including communists, fascists, the media, universities, mosques and Islamic cultural centres, European bureaucrats, and the Euro-Arab Dialogue.[3]

The term has gained some public interest and it has also been used and discussed by activists across a wide range of the political spectrum, including right-wing activists,[4] self-described "conservatives" and counter-jihad and other anti-Islamism activists. Bat Ye'or's "mother conspiracy theory" has been used as the basis for other subtheories.[5] The narrative grew important among people who expressed anti-Islamist sentiments and it was also used by members and supporters of movements like Stop Islamisation of Europe. It gained renewed interest after the use of the term by 2011 Norway attacker, Anders Behring Breivik. Ye'or's thesis has come under criticism by scholars, which intensified after Breivik's crime.[3] The conspiracy has been described as having a resemblance to the anti-Semitic Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[6][7][8][9]

Eurabia has also been discussed by believers in classical anti-Europeanism, a strong influence on the culture of the United States as well as by believers in the notion of American exceptionalism,[10] which sometimes sees Europe on the decline or as a rising rival power, or, as is the case here, both.

Basic narrative

In Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis, Bat Ye'or says that Eurabia is the result of the Euro-Arab Dialogue, based on an allegedly French-led European policy intended to increase European power against the United States by aligning its interests with those of the Arab countries. During the 1973 oil crisis, the European Economic Community (predecessor of the European Union), had entered into the Euro-Arab Dialogue (EAD) with the Arab League.[11] Ye'or says it as a primary cause of alleged European hostility to Israel, referring to joint Euro-Arab foreign policies that she characterises as anti-American and anti-Zionist.[12] Ye'or purported a close connection of a Eurabia conspiracy and used the term "dhimmitude", denoting alleged "western subjection to Islam".[13] The term itself is based on a newsletter published in the 1970s by the Comité européen de coordination des associations d'amitié avec le monde Arabe, a Euro-Arab friendship committee.[12]

Bat Ye'or's Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis was the first print publication in the Eurabia genre,[13] which has since grown to a number of titles,[14][6] including Melanie Phillips's Londonistan,[15] Oriana Fallaci's The Force of Reason,[16] and Bruce Bawer's While Europe Slept.[17] The term is often used by the writers Oriana Fallaci,[18][19] Mark Steyn[20][21][22] and several web sites, many of them affiliated with the counterjihad movement.[25] Defeating Eurabia by Fjordman (the pen name of Peder Are Nøstvold Jensen)[26] earned him a high standing among far-right extremists.[27]

An important part of the narrative is the idea of a demographic threat, the fear that, at some time in the future, Islam will take over Europe.[28] or as Bernard Lewis put it, "Europe will be Islamic by the end of the century."[29] Walter Laqueur's The Last Days of Europe: Epitaph for An Old Continent is quoted often among the Eurabia literature.

Impact

Post-9/11 significance

Bat Ye'or first used the term "Eurabia" in 2002 and again in another 2005 book.[13] The conservative historian Niall Ferguson referred to the concept, which he took as the potential future Islamisation of Europe based on demographic facts and ideational lack of the continent.[30]

2010s Europe

The idea of a Eurabian conspiracy has become a basic theme in the European extremist and populist right and expresses as well a significant strategy change. José Pedro Zúquete notes that

the threat that the Crescent will rise over the continent and the spectre of a Muslim Europe have become basic ideological features and themes of the European extreme right[4]

Muslim minority populations and Muslim immigration gained new political significance. This has led to the adoption of political positions that were previously considered fringe or third rail on either side. The main anti-Islamic theme has also penetrated into mainstream European politics,[4] for instance in the case of Dutch populist Party for Freedom leader Geert Wilders:

This government is enthusiastically co-operating with the Islamisation of the Netherlands. In all of Europe the elite opens the floodgates wide. In only a little while, one in five people in the European Union will be Muslim. Good news for this multiculti-government that views bowing to the horrors of Allah as its most important task. Good news for the CDA: C-D-A, in the meanwhile stands for Christians Serve Allah (Christenen Dienen Allah).[31]

Issues
Mainland territories of the member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Contrary to the Eurabia narrative, the largest Muslim territorium, Algeria, formally a part of France until 1962, left the Communities on its independence from France.

The Eurabia concept is an Islamophobic conspiracy theory.[32] Eurabia shortcuts the complex interaction between the US, France, Israel, the Arabic and Muslim countries on an "us against them" basis. The Eurabia theories are dismissed as Islamophobic, extremist[33][4] and conspiracy theories in the academic community.[32] At first academics showed little interest in the Eurabia theories due to their lack of factual basis.[5][34] The theme was treated in studies of rightist extremism[4] and Middle East politics.[35] This changed after the 2011 Norway attacks, which resulted in the publication of several works specifically treating the Eurabia conspiracy theories.[13][36] Janne Haaland Matláry went as far as to say that "it is poor use of time to analyse something so primitive".[37]

Demography

The Pew Research Center said in 2011 that "the data that we have isn't pointing in the direction of 'Eurabia' at all",[38] and predicts that the percentage of Muslims is estimated to rise to 8% in 2030. In 2007 academics who analysed the demographics dismissed the predictions that the EU would have Muslim majorities.[39] It is completely reasonable to assume that the overall Muslim population in Europe will increase, and Muslim citizens have and will have a significant imprint on European life.[40] The prospect of a homogeneous Muslim community per se, or a Muslim majority in Europe is however out of the question.

Justin Vaïsse seeks to discredit what he calls, "four myths of the alarmist school", using Muslims in France as an example. Specifically he has written that the Muslim population growth rate was lower than that predicted by Eurabia, partly because the fertility rate of immigrants declines with integration.[41] He further points out that Muslims are not a monolithic or cohesive group,[42] and that many Muslims do seek to integrate politically and socially. Finally, he wrote that despite their numbers, Muslims have had little influence on French foreign policy.[43]

Furthermore, leading European Muslims are rather outspoken against religious fundamentalism and are far from acknowledging Arab countries as a role model at all.[44][45]

Spread of conspiracies and further influences
Part of a series on
Islamophobia
No mosque
Issues
Status by country
Examples
Attacks on mosques:

Genocide:

Massacres, torture, expulsion:

Other incidents:
Media
Opposition

Examples of proponents use:

Germany
See also: Germany Abolishes Itself

In 2010, German politician Thilo Sarrazin released Germany Abolishes Itself. The book contends that with continued Islamic immigration, Germany will become a majority Muslim nation.[46] Journalist Simon Kuper has argued that, with over 1 million copies sold, Sarrazin had done more to publicize the concept of Eurabia more than anybody else in Europe.[47]

In political campaigning for the 2019 European Parliament election, Germany's far-right party AfD used Jean-Léon Gérôme's 1886 painting The Slave Market with the slogan "Europeans vote AfD!" and "So Europe doesn't become Eurabia!".[48] Deutsche Welle reported that the reproduction of the painting suggestively depicted dark-skinned men with beards and foreign-dress "inspecting the teeth of a nude white woman".[49]

Italy

In 2004, journalist Oriana Fallaci claimed that Muslim immigration and high fertility was part of the conspiracy theory.[50] In 2005, Fallaci told The Wall Street Journal that "Europe is no longer Europe", adding "it is 'Eurabia,' a colony of Islam".[51]

In 2011, Francesco Speroni, a sitting MEP for Lega Nord, stated that he shared the same view as Anders Behring Breivik's idea "that we are going towards Eurabia".[52] In the aftermath of the shooting, Speroni confirmed his agreement with Breivik on the conspiracy theory in an interview with Radio 24.[53]

In 2018, Giulio Meotti used the theory in relation to the demographics of Europe, writing that "Europe is over. Its future will be a mix of Eurabia and a geriatric ward."[54]

In May 2019, ahead of the European elections, Lega Nord leader for Sarzana claimed that both the European People's Party and the Party of European Socialists were attempting to bring about Eurabia.[55] The day before the vote, Italian Deputy Prime Minister Matteo Salvini endorsed the theory as a genuine threat. He insisted that a state of Eurabia had already occurred in Sweden, a claim which the Swedish embassy promptly denied with an official statement.[56] Invoking the memory of Oriana Fallaci,[57] he released an anti-migrant speech on Twitter, accompanied by the message "No to Eurabia".[58]

Netherlands

In 2008, journalist Arthur van Amerongen described Molenbeek as "Brussels: Eurabia". Despite alleging that writer Wim van Rooy had already coined the phrase, Amerongen faced severe peer and media criticism for endorsing the conspiracy theory.[59] After the November 2015 Paris attacks and discovery of a Brussels ISIL terror cell, photojournalist Teun Voeten agreed with Amerongen's description, calling the municipality an "ethnic and religious enclave".[60]

Party for Freedom leader Geert Wilders, who serves in the Dutch House of Representatives, has openly stated that "if we do not stop Islamification now, Eurabia and Netherabia will just be a matter of time."[61][62] A supporter of the conspiracy theory, Wilders believes Muslim immigration to Europe is being driven by an agreement between the European Union and Islamic countries.[63] He has delivered speeches in the Dutch parliament about Eurabia.[64]

Norway

In 2008, Peder Are Nøstvold Jensen, writing under his pseudonym Fjordman, published Defeating Eurabia. The book contends that 1 in 3 babies born in France are from a Muslim-background, and that there are hundreds of "Muslim ghettos" following Sharia law in the country, which Fjordman believes will either be overrun or face an impending civil war.[65]

2083: A European Declaration of Independence, the manifesto of Anders Behring Breivik, the perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, includes a lengthy discussion of and support for the "Eurabia" theory. It also contains several articles on the Eurabia theme by Bat Ye'or and Fjordman.[66] As a result, the theory received widespread mainstream media attention following the attacks.[67] In the verdict against Breivik, the court said that "many people share Breivik's conspiracy theory, including the Eurabia theory. The court finds that very few people, however, share Breivik's idea that the alleged "Islamization" should be fought with terror."[68]

Breivik has later stated that he previously had exploited "counterjihad" rhetoric in order to protect "ethno-nationalists", thereby instead launching a media drive against what he deemed "anti-nationalist counterjihad"-supporters.[69][70]

United Kingdom
  • David Pryce-Jones (2008). Betrayal: France, the Arabs, and the Jews. New York: Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-594032-20-2. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  • Theodore Dalrymple (2011). The New Vichy Syndrome. Why European Intellectuals Surrender to Barbarism. New York: Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-59403-372-8. Retrieved June 8, 2012. The premises common to these theories are that a rapid demographic transition in Europe has been induced by "European politicians and civil servants",[71] and will lead to a Muslim majority which will have an unchanging, hostile attitude toward their host nations.[14] Other premises, such as acquiring the compliance of or control over bureaucracies, intelligentsias and European political leaders are frequent.[72]

Canada

Author Mark Steyn, described as a "champion of 'Eurabia' myth" by Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail,[73] has predicted an emerging Eurabia region, captured by the religion of Islam and hostile to U.S. interests.[74] Steyn's promotion of the conspiracy theory centres on European demographics, where he believes a culturally asserted Muslim mass will become the majority population and demand the assimilation of white Europeans.[75]

United States
See also: White genocide conspiracy theory

In the United States, the theories have found strong proponents in the Islamophobia movement,[76][77] among them the president of Stop Islamization of America, Robert B. Spencer[78][79] and political commentator Daniel Pipes.[80]

In May 2006, Fox News host John Gibson called for white Americans to have more babies, referencing a decline in the "native population" of Europe as an apparent demographic warning for the U.S. regarding Hispanic birthrates.[81] In what Media Matters reported as fearmongering, he claimed that Eurabia was occurring in Europe.[82]

In his 2011–2012 run for the Republican presidential nomination, senator Rick Santorum warned that Europe was "creating an opportunity for the creation of Eurabia", and that the continent was "losing, because they are not having children."[83] Classicist Bruce Thornton is also a strong advocate for the theory.[84]

A 2007 film outline by Steve Bannon, who would later become the chief strategist for President Donald Trump and a member of the U.S. National Security Council, proposed that Muslims were trying to turn the United States into the "Islamic States of America".[85]

Criticism

The Economist rejected the concept of Eurabia as "scaremongering".[86] Simon Kuper in the Financial Times described Ye'or's book as "little-read but influential", and akin to "Protocols of the Elders of Zion in reverse", adding that "though ludicrous, Eurabia became the spiritual mother of a genre".[6]

David Aaronovitch acknowledges that the threat of "jihadist terror" may be real, but that there is no threat of Eurabia. Aaronovitch concludes that those who study conspiracy theories will recognize Eurabia to be a theory that adds the "Sad Dupes thesis to the Enemy Within idea".[87]

Conservative US military analyst Ralph Peters has criticized the Eurabia narrative on the grounds that it is unlikely to happen as posited, citing the historical precedent of genocides frequently occurring in Europe, such as in the Balkans during the 1990s, and the Holocaust during World War II.[88][89] Peters stated that if Muslims "taking over" Europe were imminent, Europeans would either forcibly deport their Muslims at best or engage in a genocide of them at worst,[89][88] possibly leading to a U.S. intervention on behalf of persecuted Muslims.[88]

In his 2007 book Wars of Blood and Faith, Peters states that far from being about to take over Europe through demographic change, "Europe's Muslims are living on borrowed time" and that in the event of a major terrorist attack in Europe, thanks to the "ineradicable viciousness" of Europeans and what he perceives as a historical tendency to over-react to real or perceived threats, European Muslims "will be lucky if they're only deported".[90]

According to Marján and Sapir, the very idea of "Eurabia" is "based on an extremist conspiracy theory, according to which Europe and the Arab states would join forces to make life impossible for Israel and Islamize the old continent."[33]

Writing in Race & Class in 2006, author and freelance journalist Matt Carr argued that Eurabia had moved from "an outlandish conspiracy theory" to a "dangerous Islamophobic fantasy". Carr states,

In order to accept Ye'or's ridiculous thesis, it is necessary to believe not only in the existence of a concerted Islamic plot to subjugate Europe, involving all Arab governments, whether 'Islamic' or not, but also to credit a secret and unelected parliamentary body with the astounding ability to transform all Europe's major political, economic and cultural institutions into subservient instruments of 'jihad' without any of the continent's press or elected institutions being aware of it. Nowhere in this ideologically driven interpretation of European-Arab relations does Ye'or come close to proving the 'secret history' that she professes to reveal.[91]

The Eurabia conspiracy theory has many similarities to The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[92][93][94] Arun Kundnani, writing for the International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, notes that "Eurabia" fulfills the counter-jihad movement's "structural need" for a conspiracy theory, and compares "Eurabia" to The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,[71] while Carr compares it to the Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory.[91]

Doug Saunders argues that pro-Al-Qaeda writers, and those who promote the Eurabia theory as truth, have a common extremism and world view, where "there is one creature called 'the Muslim' and another called 'the Westerner'". He proposes that there is no such distinction and that Muslims can become secular in the Western world.[95]

See also

Notes
  1. Brown, Andrew (16 August 2019). "The myth of Eurabia: how a far-right conspiracy theory went mainstream". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
  2. Bergmann, Eirikur (2021). "The Eurabia Conspiracy Theory". Europe: Continent of Conspiracies. Routledge. pp. 36–53. doi:10.4324/9781003048640-3. ISBN 9781003048640. S2CID 233612661.
  3. Lee, Benjamin (October 2016). "Why we fight: Understanding the counter-jihad movement" (PDF). Religion Compass. 10 (10): 257–265. doi:10.1111/rec3.12208.
  4. Zúquete, José Pedro (October 2008). "The European Extreme Right and Islam: New directions?". Journal of Political Ideologies. 13 (3): 321–344. doi:10.1080/13569310802377019. S2CID 145461657.
  5. "Eurabiske vers" [Eurabian verses] (in Norwegian). Morgenbladet. August 19, 2011. Retrieved April 27, 2012.
  6. Simon Kuper (October 11, 2007). "The Crescent and the Cross". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  7. Schwartz, Adi (20 June 2006). "The Protocols of the Elders of Brussels". Haaretz. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  8. Zia-Ebrahimi, Reza (2018). "When the Elders of Zion relocated to Eurabia: conspiratorial racialization in antisemitism and Islamophobia". Patterns of Prejudice. 52 (4): 314–337. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2018.1493876. S2CID 148601759.
  9. Meer, Nasar (March 2013). "Racialization and religion: race, culture and difference in the study of antisemitism and Islamophobia". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 36 (3): 385–398. doi:10.1080/01419870.2013.734392. S2CID 144942470. The protocols of Eurabia
  10. Anti-Europeanism and Euroscepticism in the United States, Patrick Chamorel No 25, EUI-RSCAS Working Papers from European University Institute (EUI), Robert Schuman Centre of Advanced Studies (RSCAS) 2004
  11. "Euro-Arab dialogue". MEDEA. Archived from the original on July 9, 2015.
  12. Ye'or, Bat (December 2002). "Le dialogue Euro-Arabe et la naissance d'Eurabia" [The Euro-Arab Dialogue and the Birth of Eurabia] (PDF) (in French). Observatoire du monde juif. Retrieved May 11, 2012. English translation Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine
  13. Fekete, Liz (2012). "The Muslim conspiracy theory and the Oslo massacre". Race & Class. 53 (3): 30–47. doi:10.1177/0306396811425984. S2CID 146443283.
  14. Justin Vaïsse (January–February 2010). "Eurabian Follies". Foreign Policy. The FP Group, a The Washington Post subsidiary. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012. Retrieved July 17, 2012.
  15. Phillips, Melanie (2006). Londonistan: How Britain is creating a terror state within. London: Encounter. ISBN 9781594031441.
  16. Fallaci, Oriana (2004). La forza della ragione [The Force of Reason] (in Italian). Milano: Rizzoli. ISBN 9788817002967.
  17. Bawer, Bruce (2007). While Europe Slept. New York: Anchor/Random House. ISBN 978-0767920056.
  18. Varadarajan, Tunku (June 23, 2005). "Prophet of Decline". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2022-09-22. Ms. Fallaci speaks in a passionate growl: 'Europe is no longer Europe, it is "Eurabia", a colony of Islam'
  19. Londra, Dopo (September 15, 2006). "Il nemico che trattiamo da amico". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). Retrieved May 13, 2012. Sono quattr' anni che parlo di nazismo islamico, di guerra all' Occidente, di culto della morte, di suicidio dell' Europa. Un' Europa che non è più Europa ma Eurabia e che con la sua mollezza, la sua inerzia, la sua cecità, il suo asservimento al nemico si sta scavando la propria tomba. [For four years I have been talking about Islamic Nazism, the war on the West, the cult of death, the suicide of Europe. A Europe that is no longer Europe but Eurabia, which with its softness, its inertia, its blindness, its servitude to the enemy is digging its own grave.]
  20. Steyn, Mark (2006). America Alone: The End of the World as We Know It. Washington, D.C.: Regnery. ISBN 978-0847827534.
  21. Steyn, Mark (January 2, 2006). "It's the Demography, Stupid". The New Criterion. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  22. Steyn, Mark (October 10, 2006). "The future belongs to Islam". Macleans. Archived from the original on July 22, 2009. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  23. "Eurabia | Augean Stables". 24 July 2006.
  24. http://chromatism.net/fjordman/eurabiacode.htm
  25. Including Gates of Vienna, Paul Beliën's Brussels Journal, FrontPage Magazine, Richard Landes's "Eurabia" article,[23] Fjordman's "The Eurabia Code"[24] article, and his Defeating Eurabia compilation.
  26. Jensen, Peder Are Nøstvold (2008). Defeating Eurabia. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781409247159.
  27. Sandvik, Siv (3 August 2011). "Fjordman hevder han vil hjelpe politiet i terroretterforskningen". Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
  28. Machlis, David; Lazaroff, Tovah (January 29, 2007). "Muslims 'about to take over Europe'". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  29. "Europa wird Islamisch" [Europe is becoming Islamic]. Die Welt (in German). April 18, 2006.
  30. Niall Ferguson (April 4, 2004). "The way we live now: Eurabia?". The New York Times. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  31. Geert Wilders. "speech in the Dutch parliament, September 16, 2009". Retrieved May 12, 2012.
  32. See:
  33. Marján, Attila; André Sapir (2010). Europe's Destiny. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-8018-9547-0.
  34. Kuper, Simon (September 9, 2011). "The end of Eurabia". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
  35. Roy, Olivier (2008). The Politics of Chaos in the Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-80043-3.
  36. Gardell, Mattias (2011). Islamofobi (in Norwegian). Oslo: Spartacus. ISBN 9788243006683.
  37. "Advarer mot å ta Breivik seriøst" [Warns against taking Breivik seriously] (in Norwegian). Norsk Rikskringkasting. Norsk Telegrambyrå. May 2, 2012. Retrieved May 12, 2012.
  38. "World Muslim population doubling, report projects". CNN. 2011-01-27. Archived from the original on 2023-03-30.
  39. Simon Kuper (August 19, 2007). "Head count belies vision of 'Eurabia'". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved August 12, 2011.
  40. Kaufmann, Eric (20 March 2010). "Europe's Muslim Future" Archived 2011-11-22 at the Wayback Machine, Prospect, Issue 169.
  41. See also Randy McDonald, France, its Muslims, and the Future, 2004-04-13, Doug Saunders, "The 'Eurabia' myth deserves a debunking Archived 2009-03-23 at the Wayback Machine", The Globe and Mail, 2008-09-20, Fewer differences between foreign born and Swedish born childbearing women, Statistics Sweden, 2008-11-03, Mary Mederios Kent, Do Muslims have more children than other women in western Europe? Archived 2008-11-08 at the Wayback Machine, Population Reference Bureau, prb.org, February 2008; for fertility of Muslims outside Europe, see the sentence "The dramatic decline in Iran's fertility provides a recent example of how strict Islamic practices can coexist with widespread use of family planning.", and (the articles) Farzaneh Roudi-Fahimi and Mary Mederios Kent, Fertility Declining in the Middle East and North Africa Archived 2009-06-01 at the Wayback Machine, prb.org, April 2008, especially the figure 2, Mohammad Jalal Abbasi-Shavazi, Recent changes and the future of fertility in Iran, especially the figure 1;
  42. See also "Merely speaking of a 'Muslim community in France' can be misleading and inaccurate: like every immigrant population, Muslims in France exhibit strong cleavages based on the country of their origin, their social background, political orientation and ideology, and the branch or sect of Islam that they practice (when they do)." in Justin Vaisse, Unrest in France, November 2005 Archived 2011-06-06 at the Wayback Machine, 2006-01-12
  43. See also Justin Vaïsse, La France et les musulmans: une politique étrangère sous influence? Archived 2013-05-13 at the Wayback Machine, April 2007 (in French)
  44. Europas muslimische Eliten: Wer sie sind und was sie wollen Jytte Klausen, Campus Verlag, 13.03.2000
  45. Walter Laqueur (2009). Best of Times, Worst of Times. University Press of New England. p. 211.
  46. Judis, John (2018). The Nationalist Revival; Trade Immigration, and the Revolt Against Gobalization. Columbia Global Reports. p. 99. ISBN 9780999745403.
  47. Simon Kuper (September 9, 2011). "The end of Eurabia". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10.
  48. "U.S. Museum Condemns Far-right German Party for Using Their Painting for anti-Muslim Campaign". Haaretz. May 1, 2019. Archived from the original on April 25, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2019.
  49. "AfD in hot water with US museum over campaign billboard". Deutsche Welle. April 26, 2019.
  50. "How Oriana Fallaci's Writings on Islamism Are Remembered—and Reviled". The Atlantic. December 15, 2017.
  51. "Oriana Fallaci, Incisive Italian Journalist, Is Dead at 77". The New York Times. September 16, 2006.
  52. "Ukip faces questions about its far-right friends in Europe". The Guardian. March 10, 2014.
  53. "La matanza de Oslo descoloca a la extrema derecha europea" [The Oslo massacre dislodges the European far right] (in Spanish). Público (Spain). July 30, 2011.
  54. "Europe's future: A combination of Eurabia and a geriatric ward". Arutz Sheva. December 8, 2018.
  55. "Sarzana, il capogruppo del Carroccio: "Votare Lega per evitare l'Eurabia"" [Sarzana, the leader of the Carroccio: "Vote Lega to avoid the Eurabia"] (in Italian). Il Secolo XIX. May 21, 2019.
  56. "Le proteste della Svezia per un servizio del Tg2" [The protests of Sweden for a Tg2 service] (in Italian). Il Post. May 21, 2019.
  57. "Salvini rompe il silenzio elettorale su Rai3. Pd e sinistra attaccano" [Salvini breaks the election silence on Rai3. Pd and left attack.] (in Italian). la Repubblica. May 25, 2019.
  58. "Lettons, Maltais et Slovaques convoqués aux urnes pour les élections européennes" [Latvians, Maltese and Slovaks called to ballot for European elections] (in French). Le Devoir. May 25, 2019.
  59. "Arthur van Amerongen: 'Misschien dat er dit jaar nog iets in Amsterdam gebeurt'" [Arthur van Amerongen: "Maybe something else will happen in Amsterdam this year"] (in Dutch). de Volkskrant. November 23, 2015.
  60. Teun Voeten (November 21, 2015). "A former resident reflects on his struggles with Brussels' most notorious neighborhood". Politico.
  61. Allegretti, Aubrey (June 16, 2015). "Disgraced Ukip MEP Janice Atkinson Joins Far-Right Front National Group In European Parliament". HuffPost.
  62. Mehdi Hasan (March 8, 2017). "The "Dutch Trump" Is Even More Toxic Than the Real Thing". The Intercept.
  63. "Geert Wilders: maverick who could ride anti-Islam wave to the top of Dutch politics". The Conversation. September 6, 2016.
  64. Geert Wilders (September 16, 2009). "Speech in the Dutch parliament". Geert Wilders' blog. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  65. "Suspect admired bloggers who believe Europe is drowning in Muslims". CNN. July 27, 2011.
  66. See:
  67. "Psykiater om Breivik: – Så komplisert at vi først i historiens lys kan få svar" [Psychiatrist on Breivik: - So complicated that answers will only come in light of history] (in Norwegian). Tv2.no. July 28, 2011. Retrieved August 7, 2011.
  68. Smilende Breivik fornøyd med dommen Archived 2012-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, nettavisen.no, 24.08.12
  69. Daniel Vergara (10 January 2014). "Breivik vill deportera "illojala judar" [Breivik wants to deport "disloyal Jews"]". Expo (in Swedish).
  70. "Mass killer Breivik says wants to create fascist party". Reuters. Sep 5, 2014.
  71. Arun Kundnani (June 2012). "Blind Spot? Security Narratives and Far-Right Violence in Europe" (PDF). International Centre for Counter-terrorism. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2012. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
  72. For instance in:
  73. "The 'Eurabia' myth deserves a debunking". The Globe and Mail. September 20, 2008.
  74. "Dispelling the Myth of Eurabia". Newsweek. July 10, 2009.
  75. "Apocalypse now". New Statesman. 12 March 2007.
  76. "anti-Islam groups received more than $119 million in funding between 2008 and 2011." Furthermore, the report asserts that many of these prolific anti-Islam groups are "tightly linked" and some of the "top players" receive huge paychecks. The founder of Jihad Watch, Robert Spencer, a renowned anti-Islam scholar, is said to have received a salary of more than $150,000, while the organization's revenues in the year 2012 were over $200,000. In an investigative paper published in 2011 and titled "Fear Inc.," the Center of American Progress (CAP) reveals a detailed list of donors that help support think tanks that perpetrate misinformation about Muslims and Islam. One such think tank is the Middle East Forum (MEF), led by academic and scholar Daniel Pipes. In 2009, the MEF is said to have received funding of nearly $6 million. Pipes and his anti-Muslim hyperbole are well known."
  77. "Leading Islamophobic figures like Pamela Geller, lawyer David Yerushalmi, Daniel Pipes of the Middle East Forum, commentator Steven Emerson, Robert Spencer and Frank Gaffney play a major role in the anti-Islamic lobby " Archived 2019-05-02 at the Wayback Machine
  78. Carr, Matt (1 July 2006). "You are now entering Eurabia" (PDF). Race & Class. SAGE. 48 (1): 9–10. doi:10.1177/0306396806066636. S2CID 145303405. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  79. Bergmann, Eirikur (21 August 2018). "The Eurabia Doctrine". Conspiracy & Populism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 144. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90359-0_6. ISBN 978-3-319-90359-0. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  80. see for instance:
  81. Sandra E. Weissinger; Dwayne A. Mack (2017). "6". Law Enforcement in the Age of Black Lives Matter: Policing Black and Brown Bodies (Critical Perspectives on Race, Crime, and Justice). Lexington Books. p. 120. ISBN 9781498553599.
  82. "Fox News' long history of race-baiting". Media Matters. 27 July 2010.
  83. Max Blumenthal (January 5, 2012). "Santorum warns of 'Eurabia,' issues call to 'evangelize and eradicate' Muslims". Al-Akhbar English. Archived from the original on January 8, 2012. Retrieved May 12, 2012.
  84. Bruce Thornton (March 26, 2005). "The Civilization of Dhimmitude - A review of Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis, by Bat Ye'or". Victor Davis Hanson on the web. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  85. "Bannon film outline warned U.S. could turn into 'Islamic States of America'". The Washington Post. February 2, 2017.
  86. "Tales from Eurabia". The Economist. June 22, 2006. Retrieved December 19, 2008. Integration will be hard work for all concerned. But for the moment at least, the prospect of Eurabia looks like scaremongering.
  87. Aaronovitch, David (2005-11-15). "It's the latest disease: sensible people saying ridiculous things about Islam". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
  88. Peters, Ralph (2007). Wars of Blood and Faith: The Conflicts That Will Shape the Twenty-First Century. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. pp. 332–334. ISBN 9781461752073. Retrieved September 18, 2018.
  89. Peters, Ralph (26 November 2006). "The 'Eurabia' Myth; Muslims Take Over Europe? Sorry, There's No Chance". New York Post.
  90. Peters, Ralph (2007). Wars of Blood and Faith: The Conflicts That Will Shape the Twenty-First Century. Stackpole Books. pp. 333–334. ISBN 978-0-8117-0274-4.
  91. Carr, M. (2006). "You are now entering Eurabia". Race & Class. 48: 1–22. doi:10.1177/0306396806066636. S2CID 145303405.
  92. Zia-Ebrahimi, Reza (2018). "When the Elders of Zion relocated to Eurabia: conspiratorial racialization in antisemitism and Islamophobia" (PDF). Patterns of Prejudice. 52 (4): 314–337. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2018.1493876. S2CID 148601759.
  93. Bangstad, Sindre (2022). "Western Islamophobia: The origins of a concept". Routledge Handbook of Islam in the West (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-26586-0. The "Eurabia" theory is a conspiracy theory directly analogous to the twentieth-century antisemitic forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
  94. Meer, Nasar (2014). Key Concepts in Race and Ethnicity (Third ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd. pp. 70–74. These assessments have led Matt Carr (2011, p. 14) to note the ways in which 'Eurabia bears many of the essential features of the invented antisemitic tract, the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, in its presentation of European Muslims as agents in a conspiracy of world domination.
  95. Saunders, Doug (August 25, 2012). "Doug Saunders: The groundless fear of Muslim immigration". The Globe and Mail.
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