Korean Empire

The resistance against the concept of Korea having a tributary relationship with China rose in the 17th century. As the Ming dynasty was replaced by Qing dynasty, and Western ideas entering Korea had caused anti-tributary sentiments to rise in Korea. Moreover, after the opening of Korea, members of Gaehwa Party often stated independence from China, but as China exclusively increased their interference after the Imo Incident and Gapsin Coup.[3]

However, following the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, Joseon won independence from the Qing dynasty. Proclaiming an empire was seen by many politicians as a good way to maintain independence.[4] After Gojong of Korea returning from his exile in the Russian legation, many officials requested Gojong to proclaim an empire to strengthen the country, and build a firm framework as an independent state.[3] Moreover, Gojong realized that Korea needed a new constitution to gain public support, and an opportunity to start a drastic reform. He established Gyo Junso to manage the reformed constitution. The Gyo Junso included all factions of Korean, which impeded it from making notable achievements. The main conflict between the members was about the authority of the king. The Gyo Junso was dissolved in 1899, without any successes.[5]

In October 1897, Gojong was crowned in Hwangudan.[6] The coronation included both styles of Western coronation and traditional Asian one.[7] Gojong named the new empire Daehan and changed the regnal year to Gwangmu, with 1897 being the first year of Gwangmu.[8] Gojong made the constitution of the country in 1898, which gave the whole authority to the emperor.[6]

At first, leading nations did not accept the proclamation of the empire, claiming that it was not worth more than a single ruble or coin. The negative foreign response to the new empire was due to the independence of Korea from the foreign influence, which had dominated its political and economic landscape. Among foreign nations, Qing showed their opposition most explicitly. They regarded the formation of the Korean Empire as a more embarrassing event than the loss of the First Sino-Japanese War. But once becoming an empire, these nations implicitly acknowledged Korea as an empire. This was shown in how foreign monarchs acknowledged Gojong as an emperor.[9]

Even though all authority resided with the emperor, popular influence in politics increased from the Joseon era. Many newspapers such as Tongnip Sinmun were established, promoting political awareness. Many organizations were established, including the Independence Club. Moreover, protests were not banned and people protested for reforms in Seoul.[10] The Independence Club tried to bring many reforms to the country to improve civil rights. The club established the Junchuwon, which was a westernized senate of the Korean Empire.[11] In October 1898, the Independence Club made six requests to the emperor:[12]

1. Neither officials nor people shall depend upon foreign aid, but shall do their best to strengthen and uphold the imperial power.
2. All documents pertaining to foreign loans, the hiring of foreign soldiers, the granting of concessions, etc., in fact every document drawn up between the Korean government and a foreign party or firm, shall be signed and sealed by all the Ministers of State and the President of the Privy Council.
3. Important offenders shall be punished only after they have been given a public trial and ample opportunity to defend themselves.
4. To his Majesty shall belong the power to appoint Ministers, but in case a majority of the Cabinet disapproves of the Emperor's nominee he shall not be appointed.
5. All sources of revenue and methods of raising taxes shall be placed under the control of the Finance Department, no other department, officer or corporation being allowed to interfere therewith; and the annual estimates and balances shall be made public.
6. The existing laws and regulations shall be enforced without fear or favour.

However, the Sugu Party, who were on the opposing faction with the Independence Party, spread false rumors that the club was trying to depose the Emperor and, establish a republic and make Bak Jeongyang President and Yun Chi-ho Vice President.[11] As Gojong heard this rumor, he ordered immediate apprehension of members of the Independence Club. Among 20 leaders of the club, 17 of 20 were arrested. Members of Sugu party wanted to execute these leaders but, exile of the president Yun Chi-ho made the party to be concentrated on arresting Yun. On 5 November 1898, Gojong banned the club with an imperial decree. Moreover, he replaced ministers who had signed the six request of the Independence Club.[13] The new cabinet was formed with many conservative politicians who were conservative compared to members of the Independence Club.[11]

Another part of reform under Korean Empire was military reform. Both conservatives and the progressives agreed with strengthening military. However, they faced obstacles as the Gabo Reform seriously weakened Korean armed forces.[14]

Hwangudan in 1906

Right after dissolving the Independence Club and People's Joint Association by force, Gojong sought to design his new cabinet with conservative politicians. Liberal officials, such as Min Young-hwan, Han Kyu-seol, Yi Hak-gyun, and Yi Jong-geon, received their dismissal, while conservative counterparts experienced rise to the power: Shim Sang-hun as the Uijeongbu Chanjung, Yu Gi-hwan as the Minister, Min Young-gi as the Minister of Economy, Shin Gi-sun as the Minister of Education, Min Byeong-seok as the Minister of Military, and Yi Gi-dong as the 1st Siwi Regiment 1st Battalion commander. Furthermore, many Bobusangs were integrated into the officialdom, that 46 Bobusangs received position in the officialdom; this rise of Bobusangs was a torment for commoners who suffered from their tyranny as local officials.[15]

Even though the Independence Club was banned, reforms were not stopped and the Gwangmu Reform continued. Conservative or left of center Politicians such as Min Young-hwan, Han Kyu-seol, Yi Yong-ik, Shim Soon-taek, Yun Ung-nyeol, and Shim Sang-hun led the reforms. Among these ministers, Yun Ung-nyeol. Yi Yong-ik and Shim Sang-hun were hated by the former members of the Independence Club.[11] These officials tried to reform the country conservatively.[16] The new cabinet formed with conservative politicians wanted to strengthen the power of the emperor. This required more taxes from the citizens. As a result, many minor taxes that were abolished by Gabo Reform were revived. These increased taxes enabled the Imperial Government to be rich enough to perform reform.[16]

The new cabinet also emphasized the independence of the country, leading to the enlargement of the Imperial Korean Army.[16] Colonel Dmitry Putyata and some officers were sent from Russia to Korea. However, Putyata had conflicts with Min Young-hwan, who was the former ambassador to Russia.[17] He returned to Russia on 26 November 1897 after assisting in the modernizing of the army.[18] In 1898, 10 more battalions were formed.[19] By sending troops, the empire tried to protect its people. Jinwidae forces were deployed in Jiandao, where many Koreans lived.[16] The new cabinet also wanted to establish a modern navy by buying ships with KIS Yangmu being the first ship to be bought, for only 451,605 won.[20]

The government tried to industrialize the country by sending many students abroad to study industry. Many new technologies were brought in to Korea and many companies were established.[16] Formalizing land ownership records also enabled better land tax collection.[11] These reforms were able to bring changes to the Korean Empire that made the country richer and stronger.

Moreover, land system reforms were initiated to establish a proper ownership of land. Under the leadership of Minister of Interior Bak Jeongyang, and Minister of Agriculture and Industry Yi Do-jae, land system reforms were purposed in June 1898. The new system not only included the land or house itself but also the surroundings of the land. This proposal was denied as only 4 out of 10 ministers assented with the proposal. However, when Gojong reviewed this cabinet conference, he ordered to proceed the land system reform just as the proposal.[21]

One of the key problems of the Korean Empire was its foreign affairs. Despite its official neutrality, the country had many policies that favored the Russian Empire. Russia frequently intervened in Korea and many of Korea's natural resources were sent to Russia.[11]

Historians are still unsure what Russia's real intentions were for Korea at the time. According to a dispatch sent from Shanghai, Russia tried to make the Korean Empire a protectorate of the Russian Empire.[22] But Czar Nicholas II himself did not desired colonizing Korea. In 1901, Nicholas told Prince Henry of Prussia, "I do not want to seize Korea but under no circumstances can I allow Japan to become firmly established there. That will be a casus belli."[23]

Before the Russo-Japanese War, Korea tried to show her neutrality to different Western countries. On 27 January 1904, Russia, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom formally commended Korea's declaration of neutrality.[24]

Later that year on August 22, the first treaty between Japan and Korea, known as the First Japan–Korea Convention, was signed. This allowed the creation of a Japanese garrison in Korea, the Japanese Korean Army.[25] The Taft–Katsura Agreement (also known as the Taft–Katsura Memorandum) was issued on July 17, 1905. It was not actually a secret pact or agreement between the United States and Japan, but rather a set of notes regarding discussions on U.S.-Japanese relations between members of the governments of both countries.[26] The Japanese Prime Minister Taro Katsura used the opportunity presented by Secretary of War William Howard Taft's stopover in Tokyo to extract a statement from Taft on the Korean question, in his capacity as a representative of the Roosevelt Administration.[27] Taft expressed in the memorandum that a suzerain relationship with Japan guiding Korea would "contribute to permanent peace in the Far East."[27]

In September 1905, Russia and Japan signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, ending the Russo-Japanese War and firmly establishing Japan's influence in Korea. Secret diplomatic contacts were sent by the Gwangmu Emperor in the fall of 1905 to entities outside of Korea presenting Korea's desperate case to preserve their sovereignty, as normal diplomatic channels were no longer an option, due to the constant surveillance by the Japanese.[28]

State funeral of Min Young-hwan who committed suicide in protest of the Eulsa Treaty

Until 1905, the Korean Empire was advancing due to reforms. However, things changed after the Eulsa Treaty. By the Taft–Katsura agreement, America and Japan gave mutual consent to the American colonization of Philippines and the Japanese colonization of Korea. Through numerous treaties, Japan isolated Korea. Emperor Gojong was opposed to the Eulsa Treaty, but negotiations proceeded without him. There were eight ministers in the conference room. Prime Minister Han Kyu-seol, Minister of the Army Yi Geun-taek, Minister of the Interior Yi Ji-yong, Minister of Foreign Affairs Park Je-sun, Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry Gwon Jung-hyeon, Minister of Finance Min Yeong-gi, and Minister of Justice Yi Ha-yeong were the Korean ministers in the conference room. Except for Han Kyu-seol, Min Yeoung-gi, and Yi Ha-yeong, all the ministers agreed with the treaty, which established a Japanese protectorate over Korea.[29] After the treaty was signed, the Waebu, which was the ministry of foreign affairs, was dissolved. All of Korea's foreign affairs were now handled by Tokyo.[30] Many embassies were recalled from Korea due to the treaty. On February 1, 1906, Itō Hirobumi, who led the Japanese treaty negotiations, became the first Japanese Resident-General of Korea.[31]

In order to manifest the invalidity of the Eulsa Treaty, Gojong sent several secret embassies to plea for support. Korean secret diplomacy's first target was Russia. Koreans believed that Russia would help the Korean independence as several Koreans who fled to Shanghai after Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904, such as Yi Hak-gyun, sent letters from former Russian minister to Korea Pavlov, which said that Japan would be withdrawn by Russian forces, and Russia would ensure Korean independence.[32]

Another response to Eulsa Treaty was committing suicide. Yi Han-eung and Min Young-hwan are examples for such resistance.[33] Many joined the righteous armies and some even attempted to assassinate the five Korean ministers who consented to the treaty also known as the Five Eulsa Traitors.[34]

Often the Gojong of Korea himself led the resistance. He sent many messages to European monarchs such as Wilhelm II, George V, Nicholas II, etc.[35] He sent Homer Hulbert, an American missionary and journalist, to the United States as an emissary in order to repudiate the treaty.[36] In June 1906, Nicholas II secretly sent Gojong an invitation for the Hague Convention of 1907. He sent emissaries to the Hague in order to repudiate the Eulsa Treaty. However, the emissaries were not accorded recognition.[37] The houses of Ye Wanyong were burned by the people and the Japanese Korean Army intervened to suppress public discontent.[38] These acts against the terms of the treaty led to the abdication of Gojong, who was succeeded by Sunjong on 19 July 1907.[37]

After Sunjong became emperor, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 was signed. Under the treaty, more Japanese were employed in the Korean government and started to intervene in Korean affairs more.[39] Forces of General Hasegawa garrisoned the palace. Some regiments of the Imperial Korean Army were disarmed. The Pyeongyang Jinwidae, which was the elite unit of the Imperial Korean Army, was disarmed.[38] Starting this reduction of Jinwidae, many regiments of the Imperial Korean Army were dissolved starting from 31 July 1907.[40] These Japanese interventions fueled the righteous armies and various local peasant militias to fight against the Japanese. These righteous armies fought against Japan with little success.[41] From 1909, the Japanese suppressed all of the righteous armies. Many members of the righteous armies fled to Manchuria or to the rest of China to join the Independence Army.[42]

Another way how Japanese controlled Korea was implanting Japanese into the Korean officialdom. According to the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907, Japanese who served as advisors for Korea were incorporated to the Korean central government. By 31 December 1908, 40.7 percent of all officials and 36.9 percent of high-ranking officials were Japanese. As a result, many Korean officials ended up losing their jobs.[43]

Under Terauchi Masatake, Japan prepared to annex Korea. After the signing treaty of August 22, 1910, the Korean Empire was annexed. The annexation was announced on 29 August 1910.[44]

The Imperial Armed Forces were composed of the Imperial Korean Army and the Imperial Korean Navy. With the central and provincial armies, the Korean Imperial grew immensely to 28,000 before 1907.[46]

Succeeding the former Joseon Army and Navy, the Gwangmu Reform reorganized the military into a modern, Western-style one. Unlike in the Joseon dynasty, service was voluntary. It had a size of about 30,000, including soldiers and cadets.

KIS Yangmu, the first naval ship of the Imperial Korean Navy

The military disbanded on August 1, 1907, due to the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907. Major Park Seung-hwan protested by committing suicide, sparking a revolt led by former imperial soldiers leading to the battle at Namdaemun Gate. Emperor Sunjong incorporated the remaining soldiers into the Imperial Guards until 1910, while others formed the foundations of the Righteous armies.

• Keltie, J.S., ed. (1900). The Statesman's Year Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1900. New York: MacMillan.
• Dong-no Kim, John B. Duncan, Do-hyung Kim (2006), Reform and Modernity in the Taehan Empire (Yonsei Korean Studies Series No. 2), Seoul: Jimoondang Publishing Company
  • Jae-gon Cho, The Industrial Promotion Policy and Commercial Structure of the Taehan Empire.
• Kim, Ki-Seok (Summer 2006). "Emperor Gwangmu's Diplomatic Struggles to Protect His Sovereignty before and after 1905". Korea Journal.
• Nahm, Andrew (October 1985). "The impact of the Taft-Katsura Memorandum on Korea: A reassessment". Korea Journal.
• Pratt, Keith L., Richard Rutt, and James Hoare. (1999). Korea: a historical and cultural dictionary, Richmond: Curzon Press. ISBN 9780700704637; ISBN 9780700704644; OCLC 245844259
• The Special Committee for the Virtual Museum of Korean History (2009), Living in Joseon Part 3: The Virtual Museum of Korean History-11, Paju: Sakyejul Publishing Ltd.
• Yi, Ha-kyoung (2012). "대한제국 시기 군주권 강화와 민권 확대 논의의 전개: 주권론을 중심으로; Power of King and the People in the Daehan Empire: Focusing on the Theory of Sovereignty" (PDF). Seoul National University: S-Space. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2022 – via 서울대학교 한국정치연구소.
• Hulbert, Homer (1906). The Passing of Korea.
• Hulbert, Homer B. (1904). The Korea Review.
• Kim, C.I. Eugene (1962). "Japanese Rule in Korea (1905–1910): A Case Study". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 106 (1): 53–59. JSTOR 985211 – via JSTOR.