History of European integration (1948–1957)

With the start of the Cold War, the Treaty of Brussels was signed in 1948 establishing the Western Union (WU). It expanded upon the Dunkirk Treaty which was a military pact between France and the United Kingdom who were concerned about the threat from the USSR following the communist take over in Czechoslovakia. The new treaty included the Benelux countries and was to promote cooperation not only in the military matters but in economic, social and cultural spheres. These roles however were rapidly taken over by other organisations.[1] Furthermore, in April 1948, the Organization for European Economic Co-operation, the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded to manage the Marshall Plan, triggering as a response the formation of the Comecon for the Soviet-controlled part of Europe. However the signatories of the Brussels treaty quickly realised their common defence was not enough against the USSR. However wider solidarity, such as that seen over the Berlin Blockade in 1949, was seen to provide sufficient deterrent. Hence in 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created. It expanded the Brussels treaty members to include Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal as well as Canada and most notably the United States. Military integration in NATO sped up following the first Soviet atomic bomb test and the start of the Korean War which prompted a desire for the inclusion in NATO of West Germany.[2] The ensuing Hague Congress of May 1948 was a pivotal moment in European integration, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International, the College of Europe.[3] In 1948, the Congress of Europe was convened in the Hague, under Winston Churchill's chairmanship. It was the first time all the European unification movements had come together under one roof and attracted a myriad of statesmen including many who would later become known as founding fathers of the European Union. The congress discussed the formation of a new Council of Europe and led to the establishment of the European Movement and the College of Europe. However it exposed a division between unionist (opposed to a loss of sovereignty) and federalist (desiring a federal Europe) supporters.[4] This unionist-federalist divide was reflected in the establishment of the Council of Europe on 5 May 1949 (today its Europe day) It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving for example the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. The Council was designed with two main political bodies, one composed of governments, the other of national members of parliament. Based in Strasbourg, it is an organisation dealing with democracy and human rights issues (today covering nearly every European state).[5]

In the same year as the Brussels treaty, Sweden planned for a Scandinavian defence union (of Sweden, Denmark and Norway) which would be neutral in regards to the proposed NATO. However, due to pressure from the United States, Norway and Denmark joined NATO and the plans collapsed. A "Scandinavian joint committee for economic cooperation" was established which led to a customs union under the Nordic Council which held its first meeting in 1953.[6] Similar economic activity was taking place between the Benelux countries. The Benelux Customs Union became operative between Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg. During the war, the three governments in exile signed a customs convention between their countries. This followed a monetary agreement which fixed their currencies against each other. This integration would lead to an economic union and the countries cooperating in foreign affairs as the union was created out of a desire to strengthen their position as small states. However the Benelux became a precursor and provided ground for later European integration.[7]

Founding members of the Community in 1952

Following the Second World War, French government policy aimed to assure disarmament and demilitarization of Germany. The Ruhr region of Germany was a focus as it has historically been key to the country's industrial strength, due to its rich supply of coal and coke which attracted the steel industry, essential for the production of munitions.[8]^: 346 Initially, France proposed that an international regime control the production and export of coal and steel in the Ruhr.[9]

The start of the cold war changed the context of French policy toward Germany. Further, the U.S. Marshall Plan (the European Recovery Plan) was aimed at reviving the economies of western Europe, including west Germany. To address French concerns, the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR) was announced at the London Six-Power Conference in June 1948 as part of the plan to establish the Federal Republic of Germany.[10] The IAR would supervise the production, organization, trade and ownership policies of the Ruhr's coal and steel industries, and distribute the industries' products so that Marshall Plan countries would have adequate access to them.[9] The mechanism outlined in the Ruhr Agreement to allocate coal and steel supplies was a council composed of representatives France, the US and the UK (with three votes each), and Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg (with one vote each). The Allied Occupation Zones in Germany would have three votes for its representatives, as soon as it formed a government recognized by the Allies. Following the Petersberg Agreement, that role came to be held by West Germany.[11][12]^: 142 The Statute for the IAR was signed and came into effect on April 28, 1949.[13]

In May 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed a new strategy: pooling the markets for coal and steel of France, Germany, and other European countries wanting to participate.[8]^: 354 Schuman's plan was an entirely different approach to the coal and steel issue, as it involved treating the Germans as equals, and with the right to negotiate on the provisions of the plan.[8]^: 355 [14] Schuman made his announcement on 9 May 1950 (on the basis of a text prepared by Schuman's colleagues Paul Reuter and Bernard Clappier working with Jean Monnet, Pierre Uri and Etienne Hirsch), at the Quai d'Orsay.[15] He proposed that: "Franco-German production of coal and steel as a whole be placed under a common High Authority, within the framework of an organisation open to the participation of the other countries of Europe." Such an act was intended to help economic growth and cement peace between France and Germany, who had previously been longtime enemies. Coal and steel were particular symbolic as they were the resources necessary to wage war. It would also be a first step to a "European federation".[16][17][18]

By the signature of this Treaty, the participating Parties give proof of their determination to create the first supranational institution and that thus they are laying the true foundation of an organised Europe. This Europe remains open to all nations. We profoundly hope that other nations will join us in our common endeavour.

— Europe Declaration signed on 18 April 1951 at the Treaty of Paris by Konrad Adenauer (West Germany), Paul van Zeeland, Joseph Meurice (Belgium) Robert Schuman (France) Count Sforza (Italy) Joseph Bech (Luxembourg) and Dirk Stikker, J. R. M. van den Brink (The Netherlands).[19]

The declaration led to the Treaty of Paris (1951) forming the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It was formed by "the inner six": France, Italy, the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg) together with West Germany. The United Kingdom refused to participate due to a rejection of supranational authority.[20][21] The Treaty sidestepped the issue of the status of the Saar protectorate. A protocol was attached to the Treaty in the form of an exchange of letters between German Chancellor Adenauer and French Minister of Foreign Affairs Schuman, stating they agreed the Treaty would have no bearing on their views of the status of the Saar.[22] The Treaty was ratified by the middle of 1952, and the European Coal and Steel Community agreement entered into force on 23 July 1952.[23] Agreement to terminate the IAR came into force on 25 June 1952.[24][8]^: 357 The common market was opened on 10 February 1953 for coal, and on 1 May 1953 for steel.[25]

During the existence of the ECSC, steel production would improve and increase fourfold. Coal production however would decline but its technology, safety and environmental quality would improve. ECSC helped deal with crises in the industry and ensured balanced development and distribution of resources. However the treaty, unlike its successors, was designed to expire after 50 years.[26]

In 1954 by the Treaty of Brussels was transformed by the Paris Agreements into the Modified Brussels Treaty which created the Western European Union which would take on European defence and be merged into the EU in later decades.[27] transformed the Western Union into the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany eventually joined in 1955 both WEU and NATO, prompting the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as an institutional framework for its military dominatin in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

The Council of Europe adopted a flag to symbolise Europe

Following on the heels of the creation of the ECSC, the European Defence Community (EDC) was drawn up and signed on 27 May 1952. It would combine national armies and allow West Germany to rearm under the control of the new Community. However, in 1954, the treaty was rejected by the French National Assembly.[34] The rejection also derailed further plans for a European Political Community, being drawn up by members of the Common Assembly which would have created a federation to ensure democratic control over the future European army.[35] In 1955, the Council of Europe adopted an emblem for all Europe, twelve golden stars in a circle upon a blue field. It would later be adopted by the European Communities.[36]

In 1956, the Egyptian government under Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez canal and closing it to Israeli traffic, sparking the Suez Crisis. This was in response to the withdrawal of funding for the Aswan Dam by the UK and United States due to Egypt's ties to the Soviet Union. The canal was owned by the UK and French investors and had been a neutral zone under British control. The nationalisation and closure to Israeli traffic prompted a military response by the UK, France and Israel, a move opposed by the United States. It was a military success but a political disaster for the UK and France. The UK in particular saw it could not operate alone, instead turning to the US, and it also prompted the next British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, to look towards joining the European Community. Equally France saw its future with the Community but opposed British entry, with then French President Charles de Gaulle stating he would veto British entry out of a fear it would lead to US domination.[37]

As a result of the crisis, the Common Assembly proposed extending the powers of the ECSC to cover other sources of energy. Louis Armand was put in charge of a study into the prospects of nuclear energy use in Europe. The report concluded further nuclear development was needed to fill the deficit left by the exhaustion of coal deposits and to reduce dependence on oil producers. However the Benelux states and Germany were also keen on creating a general common market, although it was opposed by France. In the end, both were created, as separate communities.[38]

As a result of the Messina Conference of 1955, Paul-Henri Spaak was appointed as chairman of a preparatory committee (Spaak Committee) charged with the preparation of a report on the creation of a common European market.

The Spaak Report[39] drawn up by the Spaak Committee provided the basis for further progress and was accepted at the Venice Conference (29 and 30 May 1956) where the decision was taken to organize an Intergovernmental Conference. The report formed the cornerstone of the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at Val Duchesse in 1956. The outcome of the conference was that new communities would share the Common Assembly (now Parliamentary Assembly) with the ECSC, as it would with the Court of Justice. However they would not share the ECSC's Council of High Authority. The two new High Authorities would be called Commissions, this was due to a reduction in their powers. France was reluctant to agree to more supranational powers and hence the new Commissions would only have basic powers and important decisions would have to be approved by the Council, which now adopted majority voting. Thus, on 25 March 1957, the Treaties of Rome were signed. They came into force on 1958-01-01 establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). The latter body fostered co-operation in the nuclear field, at the time a very popular area, and the EEC was to create a full customs union between members. Louis Armand became the first President of Euratom Commission and Walter Hallstein became the first President of the EEC Commission.[40][41][42][43][44]

Wikisource has original treaties and speeches related to this article

*Churchill's Zurich Speech

• Schuman Declaration
• ECSC treaty
• EEC treaty
• Euratom treaty

• History of the European Communities (1973–1993)
• History of the European Union (2004–present)
• Organisation for European Economic Cooperation
• Hungarian Revolution of 1956
• European Youth Campaign

Source of majority of the dates: A peaceful Europe – the beginnings of cooperation