Household

A household consists of one or more persons who live in the same dwelling. It may be of a single family or another type of person group.[1] The household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models, and is important to economics and inheritance.[2]

This article is about an economic, social, or socioeconomic grouping. For the author, see Geoffrey Household. For the American band, see Household (band).
Painting of a man feeding a baby, two women and another child
Familienidylle by Aimé Pez, 1839

Household models include families, blended families, shared housing, group homes, boarding houses, houses of multiple occupancy (UK), and single room occupancy (US). In feudal societies, the royal household and medieval households of the wealthy included servants and other retainers.

Government definitions

For statistical purposes in the United Kingdom, a household is defined as "one person or a group of people who have the accommodation as their only or main residence and for a group, either share at least one meal a day or share the living accommodation, that is, a living room or sitting room".[3] The introduction of legislation to control houses of multiple occupations in the UK Housing Act (2004)[4] required a tighter definition of a single household. People can be considered a household if they are related: full- or half-blood, foster, step-parent/child, in-laws (and equivalent for unmarried couples), a married couple or unmarried but "living as ..." (same- or different-sex couples).[5]

The United States Census definition also hinges on "separate living quarters": "those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building."[6] According to the U.S. census, a householder is the "person (or one of the people) in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented (maintained)"; if no person qualifies, any adult resident of a housing unit is considered a householder. The U.S. government formerly used "head of the household" and "head of the family", but those terms were replaced with "householder" in 1980.[7] In the census definition of a household, it

... includes all the persons who occupy a housing unit. A housing unit is a house, an apartment, a mobile home, a group of rooms, or a single room that is occupied (or if vacant, is intended for occupancy) as separate living quarters. Separate living quarters are those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building and which have direct access from the outside of the building or through a common hall. The occupants may be a single family, one person living alone, two or more families living together, or any other group of related or unrelated persons who share living arrangements. (People not living in households are classified as living in group quarters.)[8]

On July 15, 1998, Statistics Canada said: "A household is generally defined as being composed of a person or group of persons who co-reside in, or occupy, a dwelling."[9]

Economic definition

Although a one-income-stream economic theory simplifies modeling, it does not necessarily reflect reality. Many, if not most, households have several income-earning members. Most economic models do not equate households and traditional families, and there is not always a one-to-one relationship between households and families.

Social definitions

In social work, a household is defined similarly: a residential group in which housework is divided and performed by householders. Care may be delivered by one householder to another, depending upon their respective needs, abilities, and (perhaps) disabilities. Household composition may affect life and health expectations and outcomes for its members.[10][11] Eligibility for community services and welfare benefits may depend upon household composition.[12]

In sociology, household work strategy (a term coined by Ray Pahl in his 1984 book, Divisions of Labour)[13][14] is the division of labour among members of a household. Household work strategies vary over the life cycle as household members age, or with the economic environment; they may be imposed by one person, or be decided collectively.[15]

Feminism examines how gender roles affect the division of labour in households. In The Second Shift and The Time Bind, sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild presents evidence that in two-career couples men and women spend about equal amounts of time working; however, women spend more time on housework.[16][17] Cathy Young (another feminist writer) says that in some cases, women may prevent the equal participation of men in housework and parenting.[18]

Models

Household models in the English-speaking world include traditional and blended families, shared housing, and group homes for people with support needs. Other models which may meet definitions of a household include boarding houses, houses in multiple occupation (UK), and single room occupancy (US).

History

In feudal or aristocratic societies, a household may include servants or retainers who derive their income from the household's principal income.

Housing statistics
Dwellings with bathrooms[19]
Country 1960 1970 1980
Belgium 23.6% 49.1% 73.9%
Denmark 39.4% 73.1% 85.4%
France 28.0% 48.9% 85.2%
Germany 51.9% 71.5% 92.3%
Greece 10.4% - 69.3%
Ireland 33.0% 55.3% 82.0%
Italy 10.7% 64.5% 86.4%
Luxembourg 45.7% 69.4% 86.2%
Netherlands 30.3% 75.5% 95.9%
Portugal 18.6% - 58%
Spain 24.0% 77.8% 85.3%
United Kingdom 78.3% 90.9% 98.0%
Indoor WC, bath/shower and hot running water (1988)[20]
CountryIndoor WCBath/showerHot running water
Belgium94%92%87%
Denmark97%94%N/A
France94%93%95%
Germany99%97%98%
Greece85%85%84%
Ireland94%92%91%
Italy99%95%93%
Luxembourg99%97%97%
NetherlandsN/A99%100%
Portugal80%N/AN/A
Spain97%96%N/A
UK99%100%N/A
1981–82 censuses[19]
Country Bath/shower Indoor WC Central heating
Belgium 73.9% 79.0% -
Denmark 85.1% 95.8% 54.6%
France 85.2% 85.4% 67.6%
Germany 92.3% 96.0% 70.0%
Greece 69.3% 70.9% -
Ireland 82.0% 84.5% 39.2%
Italy 86.4% 87.7% 56.5%
Luxembourg 86.2% 97.3% 73.9%
Netherlands 95.9% - 66.1%
Portugal 58.0% 58.7% -
Spain 85.3% - 22.5%
United Kingdom 98.0% 97.3% -
Average usable floor space, 1976[21]
CountryArea
Austria86 m2 (930 sq ft)
Belgium97 m2 (1,040 sq ft)
Bulgaria63 m2 (680 sq ft)
Canada89 m2 (960 sq ft)
Czechoslovakia69 m2 (740 sq ft)
Denmark122 m2 (1,310 sq ft)
Finland71 m2 (760 sq ft)
France82 m2 (880 sq ft)
East Germany60 m2 (650 sq ft)
West Germany95 m2 (1,020 sq ft)
Greece80 m2 (860 sq ft)
Hungary65 m2 (700 sq ft)
Ireland88 m2 (950 sq ft)
Luxembourg107 m2 (1,150 sq ft)
Netherlands71 m2 (760 sq ft)
Norway89 m2 (960 sq ft)
Poland58 m2 (620 sq ft)
Portugal104 m2 (1,120 sq ft)
Romania54 m2 (580 sq ft)
Soviet Union49 m2 (530 sq ft)
Spain82 m2 (880 sq ft)
Sweden109 m2 (1,170 sq ft)
Switzerland98 m2 (1,050 sq ft)
United Kingdom70 m2 (750 sq ft)
United States120 m2 (1,300 sq ft)
Yugoslavia65 m2 (700 sq ft)
Average usable floor space, 1994[22]
CountryArea
Austria85.3 m2 (918 sq ft)
Belgium86.3 m2 (929 sq ft)
Denmark107 m2 (1,150 sq ft)
Finland74.8 m2 (805 sq ft)
France85.4 m2 (919 sq ft)
East Germany64.4 m2 (693 sq ft)
West Germany86.7 m2 (933 sq ft)
Greece79.6 m2 (857 sq ft)
Ireland88 m2 (950 sq ft)
Italy92.3 m2 (994 sq ft)
Luxembourg107 m2 (1,150 sq ft)
Netherlands98.6 m2 (1,061 sq ft)
Spain86.6 m2 (932 sq ft)
Sweden92 m2 (990 sq ft)
United Kingdom79.7 m2 (858 sq ft)
Floor space, 1992–1993[23]
CountryYearArea
Australia1993191 m2 (2,060 sq ft)
United States1992153.2 m2 (1,649 sq ft)
South Korea1993119.3 m2 (1,284 sq ft)
United Kingdom199295 m2 (1,020 sq ft)
Germany199390.8 m2 (977 sq ft)
Japan199388.6 m2 (954 sq ft)
Households without an indoor WC, 1980[24]
Country %
Belgium19%
France17%
West Germany7%
Greece29%
Ireland22%
Italy11%
Japan54%
Norway17%
Portugal43%
Spain12%
United Kingdom6%
Households without a bath or shower
Country %
Belgium24%
France17%
West Germany11%
Italy11%
Japan17%
Norway18%
Spain39%
United Kingdom4%
Households with an indoor WC[25]
Country 1960–61 1970–71 1978–79
Britain 87% 88% 95%
Germany 64% 85% 92.5%
Households with a bath or shower[25]
Country 1960–61 1970–71 1978–79
Britain 72% 91% 94.3%
Germany 51% 82% 89.1%
Principal residences in France lacking amenities:[21]
Year Running water WC Bath or shower Central heating
1962 21.6% 59.5% 71.1% 80.7%
1968 9.2% 45.2% 52.5% 65.1%
1975 2.8% 26.2% 29.8% 46.9%
1978 1.3% 20.9% 22.9% 39.7%
Households with central heating
Country19701978
Great Britain34%53%
Germany44%64%
US dwellings with bathroom amenities, 1970[26]
Amenity %
Bath/shower95%
Flush toilet96%
East German amenities[21]
Amenity 1961 1971 1979
Running water 66% 82.2% 89%
WC 33% 41.8% 50%
Bath/shower 22.4% 38.7% 50%
Central heating 2.5% 10.6% 22%
Amenities in European dwellings, 1970–71[27]
Country Running water WC Bath/shower
Austria 84.2% 69.8% 52.9%
Belgium 88.0% 50.4% 47.8%
Czechoslovakia 75.3% 49.0% 58.6%
Denmark 98.7% 90.3% 76.5%
Finland 72.0% 61.4% -
Greece 64.9% 41.2% 35.6%
Hungary 36.1% 27.2% 31.7%
Ireland 78.2% 69.2% 55.4%
Italy 86.1% 79.0% 64.5%
Netherlands - 80.8% 81.4%
Norway 97.5% 69.0% 66.1%
Portugal 47.8% 33.7% 32.6%
Spain 70.9% 70.9% 46.4%
Sweden 97.4% 90.1% 78.3%
Switzerland - 93.3% 80.9%
United Kingdom - 86.3% 90.7%
Yugoslavia 33.6% 26.2% 24.6%
British households lacking amenities[28]
Year Bath Indoor/outdoor WC Hot running water Indoor WC
1951 37.6% 7.7% - -
1961 22.4% 6.5% 21.8% -
1966 15.4% 1.7% 12.5% 18.3%
1971 9.1% 1.1% 6.5% 11.5%
British households sharing amenities[28]
Year Bath Indoor/outdoor WC Hot running water Indoor WC
1951 7.5% 14.9% - -
1961 4.4% 6.7% 1.8% -
1966 4.1% 6.4% 2.0% 4.4%
1971 3.2% 4.1% 1.9% 3.1%
Households with durable goods, 1964–1971[29]
Country Year Washing machine Refrigerator Television Telephone
Northern Ireland 1971 45.4% 40.1% 87.5% 27.0%
Scotland 1971 65.0% 53.2% 92.1% 36.1%
United Kingdom 1964 53.0% 34.0% 80.0% 2.2%
United Kingdom 1971 64.3% 68.8% 91.4% 37.8%
United States 1965 87.4% 99.5% 97.1% 85.0%
United States 1970 92.1% 99.85 98.7% 92.0%
EEC manual workers with durable goods, 1963–1964[29]
Country Washing machine Refrigerator Television Telephone
Belgium 74.7% 24.9% 47.6% 8.2%
France 39.6% 47.0% 34.4% 1.4%
West Germany 66.2% 62.1% 51.3% 1.8%
Italy 13.6% 50.2% 47.9% 20.0%
Luxembourg 82.3% 64.7% 27.9% 23.0%
Netherlands 80.4% 25.5% 58.0% 9.4%
EEC white-collar workers with durable goods, 1963–1964[29]
Country Washing machine Refrigerator Television Telephone
Belgium 68.5% 57.3% 48.3% 40.0%
France 48.2% 71.3% 43.3% 15.2%
West Germany 62.2% 79.1% 51.8% 19.6%
Italy 38.3% 81.9% 79.3% 57.9%
Luxembourg 82.3% 79.2% 25.2% 67.3%
Netherlands 73.9% 51.6% 56.2% 57.4%
Dwellings with amenities, 1960–71[29]
Country Year Running water Indoor running water Toilet Flush toilet Bath/shower
Austria 1961 100.0% 63.6% - - 29.6%
1970 - 85.3% 69.7% - 54.5%
Belgium 1961 76.9% - 99.9% 47.6% 24.3%
Bulgaria 1965 28.5% 28.2% 100.0% 11.8% 8.7%
Canada 1961 89.1% - - 85.2% 80.3%
1967 - 95.2% 93.5% 92.5% 89.8%
1971 - - - 95.4% 93.4%
Czechoslovakia 1961 60.5% 49.1% - 39.5% 33.3%
Denmark 1960 - 92.9% 100.0% 83.6% 48.3%
1965 96.7% 96.7% 100.0% 90.9% 63.4%
England and Wales 1961 - 98.7% 93.4% - 78.7%
1966 - - - 98.2% 85.1%
Finland 1960 47.1% 47.1% - 35.4% 14.6%
France 1962 - 77.5% 43.1% 39.3% 28.0%
1968 92.8% 91.5% 56.2% 53.2% 48.9%
East Germany 1961 - 65.7% 33.7% - 22.1%
West Germany 1965 - 98.2% - 83.3% 64.3%
1968 99.0% - - 86.5% 66.8%
Hungary 1960 - - 100.0% 22.5% -
1963 32.5% 25.9% - - 18.5%
1970 58.6% 36.4% 100.0% 32.7% 32.2%
Ireland 1961 57.2% 51.0% 64.9% 53.5% 33.2%
Italy 1961 71.6% 62.3% 89.5% - 28.9%
Luxembourg 1960 98.8% - 100.0% 81.6% 45.7%
Netherlands 1956 89.6% - 99.9% 67.5% 26.8%
New Zealand 1960 - 90.0% - - -
1961 99.6% 87.8% - 88.5% -
1966 99.7% 90.3% - 94.0% 98.1%
Norway 1960 94.0% 92.8% 100.0% 57.9% 45.2%
Poland 1960 39.1% 29.9% 26.9% 18.9% 13.9%
1966 - 46.8% - 33.3% -
Romania 1966 48.4% 12.3% 100.0% 12.2% 9.6%
Scotland 1961 - 94.0% - 92.8% 69.9%
1966 - - - 95.7% 77.4%
Sweden 1960 - 90.0% - 76.2% 61.0%
1965 95.2% 94.3% 99.7% 85.3% 72.9%
Switzerland 1960 - 96.1% 99.7% - 68.8%
United States 1960 94.0% 92.9% - 89.7% 88.1%
Yugoslavia (urban) 1961 - 42.4% 34.5% - 22.5%
European households with at least one car, 1978[30]
Country %
Belgium 69.9%
Denmark 57.0%
France 66.9%
West Germany 62.6%
Ireland 65.1%
Italy 69.1%
Netherlands 67.2%
United Kingdom 54.4%
Housing tenure, 1980–1990[31]
Country Year Public rental Private rental Owner-occupied
Australia 1988 5% 25% 70%
Belgium 1986 6% 30% 62%
Denmark 1990 21% 21% 58%
France 1990 17% 30% 53%
Germany 1990 25% 38% 37%
Ireland 1990 14% 9% 78%
Italy 1990 5% 24% 64%
Netherlands 1988 43% 13% 44%
Spain 1989 1% 11% 88%
United Kingdom 1990 27% 7% 66%
United States 1980 2% 32% 66%
EEC households with a garden, 1963–64[32]
Country %
Belgium 58%
France 47%
Italy 17%
Netherlands 21%
Germany 45%
Luxembourg 81%
Households with durable goods, 1962[33]
Country Television Vacuum cleaner Washing machine Refrigerator Car
France 25% 32% 31% 37% 33%
Great Britain 78% 71% 43% 22% 30%
United States 87% 75% 95% 98% 75%

Housing conditions

Belgium

A 1961–62 National Housing Institute survey estimated that 13.8 percent of Belgian dwellings were unfit and incapable of improvement. A further 19.5 percent were unfit but had the potential to be improved, and 54 percent were considered suitable (without alteration or improvement) for modern living standards. Seventy-four percent of dwellings lacked a shower or bath, 19 percent had inadequate sewage disposal, and 3.6 percent lacked a drinking-water supply; 36.8 percent had an indoor water closet.[34] According to a 1964 study, 13 percent of Belgium's housing consisted of slums.[35] In 1974 an estimated 17% of the Belgian population lived in a detached house, while 23% lived in an attached house, 56% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 37% without a fixed bath or shower and 7% without piped water.[37]

Austria

In 1974 an estimated 28% of the Austrian population lived in a detached house, while 5% lived in an attached house, 64% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 10% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 34% without a fixed bath or shower and 8% without piped water.[37]

Ireland

In 1974 an estimated 27% of the Irish population lived in a detached house, while 55% lived in an attached house, 11% in an apartment or flat, and 8% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 21% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 2% without electric lighting, 20% without a fixed bath or shower and 14% without piped water.[37]

Japan

In 1973 an estimated 65% of the Japanese population lived in a detached house, while 12% lived in an attached house, and 23% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 65% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 3% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Netherlands

In 1974 an estimated 18% of the Dutch population lived in a detached house, while 40% lived in an attached house, 36% in an apartment or flat, and 6% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 2% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Italy

In 1974 an estimated 18% of the Italian population lived in a detached house, while 9% lived in an attached house, 65% in an apartment or flat, and 8% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 4% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 2% without electric lighting, 27% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Norway

In 1974 an estimated 45% of the Norwegian population lived in a detached house, while 7% lived in an attached house, 46% in an apartment or flat, and 2% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 13% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 25% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Sweden

In 1974 an estimated 36% of the Swedish population lived in a detached house, while 8% lived in an attached house, and 56% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 2% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 2% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Denmark

In 1974 an estimated 50% of the Danish population lived in a detached house, while 11% lived in an attached house, 31% in an apartment or flat, and 8% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 10% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Switzerland

In 1974 an estimated 33% of the Swiss population lived in a detached house, while 5% lived in an attached house, and 62% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 3% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 15% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

Spain

In 1974 an estimated 12% of the Spanish population lived in a detached house, while 23% lived in an attached house, 61% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1970/75 an estimated 29% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 4% without electric lighting, 54% without a fixed bath or shower and 32% without piped water.[37]

West Germany

In 1974 an estimated 22% of the West German population lived in a detached house, while 5% lived in an attached house, 69% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 4% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 6% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

France

Between 1954 and 1973, the percentage of French homes with a shower or bath increased from 10 to 65 percent. During that period, the percentage of homes without flush toilets fell from 73 to 30 percent; homes without running water fell from 42 to 3.4 percent. A 1948 law permitted gradual, long-term rent increases for existing flats on the condition that part of the money was spent on repairs. According to John Ardagh, the law, "vigorously applied, was partly successful in its twofold aim: to encourage both repairs and new building."[38] In 1974 an estimated 17% of the French population lived in a detached house, while 2% lived in an attached house, 78% in an apartment or flat, and 3% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 20% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 34% without a fixed bath or shower and 3% without piped water.[37]

United Kingdom

After World War II, a large percentage of British housing was single-family housing. Seventy-eight percent of housing in 1961 consisted of single-family homes, compared to 56 percent in the Netherlands, 49 percent in West Germany and 32 percent in France.[39] In England and Wales in 1964, 6.6 percent of housing units had two or fewer rooms; 5.8 percent had seven or more rooms, 15.2 percent had six rooms, 35.1 percent had five rooms, 26.3 percent had four rooms, and 11.1 percent had three rooms. These figures included kitchens when they were used for eating meals. Fifty percent of 1964 housing had three bedrooms; 1.9 percent had five or more bedrooms, 6.2 percent had four bedrooms, 10.5 percent had one bedroom or none, and 31.3 percent had two bedrooms. A 1960 social survey estimated that 0.6 percent of households in England and Wales exceeded the statutory overcrowding standard; the 1964 percentage was 0.5 percent. In 1964, 6.9 of all households exceeded one person per room. The 1960 figure was 11 percent, with 1.75 percent having two or more bedrooms below the standard and 9.25 percent having one bedroom below the standard. This declined slightly by 1964 to 9.4 percent of households below the standard, with 8.1 percent having one bedroom below the standard and 1.3 percent having two bedrooms or more below the standard. According to local authorities in 1965, five percent of the housing stock in England and Wales was unfit for habitation.[40] In 1974 an estimated 23% of the population of the UK lived in a detached house, while 50% lived in an attached house, 23% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[41] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 3% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

U.S. and Canada

Housing conditions improved in Canada and the U.S. after World War II. In the U.S., 35.4 percent of all 1950 dwellings did not have complete plumbing facilities; the figure fell to 16.8 percent in 1960 and 8.4 percent in 1968. In Canada from 1951 to 1971, the percentage of dwellings with a bath or shower increased from 60.8 to 93.4 percent; the percentage of dwellings with hot and cold running water increased from 56.9 to 93.5 percent.[29] In the United States from 1950 to 1974, the percentage of housing without full plumbing fell from 34 to three percent; during that period, the percentage of housing stock considered dilapidated fell from nine percent to less than four.[42] In 1976, an estimated 64% of the population of the U.S.A. lived in a detached house, while 4% lived in an attached house, 28% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 2% of all houses in the U.S.A. were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 3% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37] In 1977 an estimated 59% of the population of Canada lived in a detached house, while 8% lived in an attached house, and 33% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975/77 an estimated 3% of all houses in Canada were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 2% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]

See also

References
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Sources
  • The Economist Book Of Vital World Statistics: A Complete Guide To The World In Figures (introduction by Claus Moser). The Economist Books, fourth reprint, paperback edition, October 1992. Contains a section, "Consumer Durables", with estimates of household ownership of a wide range of consumer durables in OECD and East European countries.
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