List of contemporary Islamic scholars
Modern-era (20th to 21st century) Islamic scholars include the following, referring to religious authorities whose publications or statements are accepted as pronouncements on religion by their respective communities and adherents.
Geographical categories have been created based on commonalities in culture and across the Islamic World.
Africa
Nigeria
- Aminu Ibrahim Daurawa (born 1969)
- Dahiru Usman Bauchi (born 1927)
- Isa Ali Pantami
- Ja'afar Mahmud Adam (1960–2007)
- Kabiru Gombe (born 1960)
- Muhammad Auwal Albani Zaria (1960–2014)
- Sani Umar Rijiyar Lemo (born 1970)
- Sani Yahaya Jingir
Egypt
- Abd al-Hamid Kishk (1933–1996)
- Ahmad al-Tayyeb (born 1946)
- Ahmad Muhammad Shakir (1892–1958)
- Ali Gomaa (born 1952)
- Muhammad Metwalli al-Sha'rawi (1911–1998)
- Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy (1928–2010)
- Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1926–2022)
- Zainab al Ghazali (1917–2005)
Mauritania
- Abdallah Bin Bayyah (born 1935)
- Mohammad Al-Hasan Al-Dido (born 1963)
South Africa
- Abdalqadir as-Sufi (1930–2021)
- Ebrahim Desai (1963–2021)
- Taha Karaan (1969–2021)
- Yusuf Karaan (1935–2015)
Zimbabwe
- Ismail ibn Musa Menk (born 1975)
Ghana
- Osman Nuhu Sharubutu (born 1919)
Senegal
- Ibrahim Niass (1900–1975)
- Hassan Cisse (1945-2008)
Morocco
- Abd al-Aziz al-Ghumari (1920–1997)
- Asma Lamrabet (born 1951)
- Fatima al-Kabbaj (born 1932)
- Muhammad Abu Khubza (1932–2020)
Asia
Cyprus
- Nazim Al-Haqqani (1922–2014)
Iran
- Abd al-A'la al-Sabziwari (1910–1993)
- Abdollah Javadi-Amoli (born 1933)
- Ahmad Jannati (born 1927)
- Ahmad Mojtahedi Tehrani (1923–2008)
- Ali Akbar Ghoreishi (born 1928)
- Ali Mohammad Dastgheib Shirazi (born 1935)
- Ali Movahedi-Kermani (born 1931)
- Ali Khamenei (born 1939)
- Fakhraddin Mousavi (1930-2021)
- Hassan Hassanzadeh Amoli (1928-2021)
- Hossein Mazaheri (born 1933)
- Hossein Wahid Khorasani (born 1921)
- Hussein-Ali Montazeri (1922–2009)
- Iftikhār al-Tujjar (1912-1977)
- Ja'far Sobhani (born 1929)
- Jawad Tabrizi (1926–2006)
- Lotfollah Safi Golpaygani (1919-2022)
- Mohammad Ali Gerami Qomi (born 1938)
- Mohammad Ali Mousavi Jazayeri (born 1941)
- Mohammad Ebrahim Jannaati (born 1933)
- Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari (1904–1986)
- Mohammad Khamenei (born 1935)
- Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai (1903–1981)
- Mohammad Sadeq Rouhani (1926-2022)
- Mohammad Sadeqi Tehrani (1926–2011)
- Mohammad Sadoughi (1909–1982)
- Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi (1935–2021)
- Mohammad-Taqi Bahjat Foumani (1916–2009)
- Mohammad Yazdi (1931–2020)
- Mousa Shubairi Zanjani (born 1928)
- Naser Makarem Shirazi (born 1927)
- Ruhollah Khomeini (1900–1989)
- Taqi Tabatabaei Qomi (1923–2016)
- Yasubedin Rastegar Jooybari (born 1940)
- Yousef Saanei (1937–2020)
- Zīnah al-Sādāt Humāyūnī (1917-2016)
- Zohreh Sefati (born 1948)
Iraq
- Abbas Modaresi Yazdi (1943–2020)
- Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei (1899–1992)
- Ahmad Hassani Baghdadi (born 1945)
- Ali al-Milani (born 1948)
- Ali al-Sistani (born 1930)
- Allaedin Ghoraifi (born 1945)
- Fazel Maleki (born 1953)
- Hassan al-Shirazi (1935–1980)
- Hussein Esmaeel al-Sadr (born 1952)
- Kamal al-Haydari (born 1956)
- Kazem al-Haeri (born 1938)
- Mahmoud al-Sarkhi (born 1964)
- Mohammad al-Sadr (1943–1999)
- Mohammad al-Shirazi (1928–2001)
- Mohammad Ali Tabatabaei Hassani (1945–2017)
- Mohammad Hussaini Shahroudi (1925–2019)
- Mohammed Ridha al-Shirazi (1959–2008)
- Mohammad Taher Khaqani (born 1940)
- Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi (born 1945)
- Mohammad Yaqoobi (born 1960)
- Morteza Hosseini Fayaz (1929–2014)
- Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr (1935–1980)
- Sadiq al-Shirazi (born 1942)
- Shamsodin Vaezi (born 1936)
- Shahab ud-Din Mar'ashi Najafi (1897–1990)
Jordan
- Abdul Karim Khasawneh (born 1944)
- Nuh al-Qudah (1939-2010)
- Nuh Ha Mim Keller (born 1954)
- Sa'id Foudah (born 1967)
- Umar Sulayman al-Ashqar (1930–2012)
Lebanon
- Abdullah al-Harari (1910–2008)
- Gibril Haddad (born 1960)
- Hisham Kabbani (born 1945)
- Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah (1935–2010)
- Musa al-Sadr (1928–1978)
- Sobhi Mahmassani (1909–1986)
Oman
- Zohurul Hoque (1926–2017)
Palestine
- Taqiuddin al-Nabhani (1909–1977)
Saudi Arabia
- Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah ibn Baaz (1910–1999)
- Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais (born 1960)
- Abdul-Azeez ibn Abdullaah Aal ash-Shaikh (born 1943)
- Abdullah Ibn Jibreen (1933–2009)
- Adil al-Kalbani (born 1959)
- Ali Bin Abdur Rahman Al Huthaify (born 1947)
- Muhammad ibn Alawi al-Maliki (1944-2004)
- Muhammad Al-Munajid (born 1960)
- Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen (1925–2001)
- Muhammad Muhsin Khan (1927-2021)
- Rabee al-Madkhali (born 1931)
- Saleh Al-Fawzan (born 1933)
- Saud Al-Shuraim (born 1964)
Syria
- Ahmed Kuftaro (1915–2004)
- Muhammad Ali al-Sabuni (1930-2021)
- Muhammad al-Yaqoubi (born 1963)
- Muhammad bin Yahya al-Ninowy (born 1966)
- Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani (1914–1999)
- Muhammad Said Ramadan al-Bouti (1929–2013)
- Munira al-Qubaysi (1933-2022)
Turkey
- Ahmet Mahmut Ünlü (born 1965)
- Ali Bardakoğlu (born 1952)
- Ali Erbaş (born 1961)
- Cemalnur Sargut (born 1962)
- Fethullah Gülen (born 1941)
- Hidayet Şefkatli Tuksal (born 1963)
- Hüseyin Hilmi Işık (1911-2001)
- Mahmud Esad Coşan (1938–2001)
- Mahmut Ustaosmanoğlu (1929-2022)
- Mehmed Fatih Çıtlak (born 1967)
- Mehmet Görmez (born 1959)
- Mustafa Çağrıcı (born 1950)
- Muzaffer Ozak (1916–1985)
- Nazim Al-Haqqani (1922–2014)
- Osman Nuri Topbaş (born 1942)
- Ömer Tuğrul İnançer (1946-2022)
- Süleyman Ateş (born 1933)
- Yaşar Nuri Öztürk (1951-2016)
Yemen
- Abdul Majeed al-Zindani (born 1942)
- Habib Ali al-Jifri (born 1971)
- Habib Umar bin Hafiz (born 1963)
- Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i (1933–2001)
- Yahya al-Hajuri
Bangladesh
- Abdul Latif Chowdhury Fultali (1913–2008)
- Abdul Halim Bukhari (1945-2022)
- Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani (1880–1976)
- Abdul Haque Faridi (1903–1996)
- Abdul Jabbar Jahanabadi (1937–2016)
- Abdul Khaleque Mondal (1944-2023)
- Abdul Malek Halim
- Abdul Matin Chowdhury (1915–1990)
- Abdur Rahim (1918–1987)
- Abdur Rahman Chatgami (1920–2015)
- Abdur Rahman Kashgarhi (1912-1971)
- Abdus Salam Chatgami (1943–2021)
- Abdus Sobhan (1936–2020)
- Abu Zafar Mohammad Saleh (1915–1990)
- A F M Khalid Hossain (born 1959)
- Ahmed Ali Enayetpuri (1898–1959)
- Ashraf Ali Bishwanathi (1928–2005)
- Athar Ali Bengali (1891–1976)
- Azizul Haq (1903–1961)
- Azizul Haque (1919–2012)
- Deen Muhammad Khan (1900–1974)
- Delwar Hossain Sayeedi (born 1940)
- Farid Uddin Chowdhury (born 1947)
- Farid Uddin Masood (born 1950)
- Fazlul Karim (1935–2006)
- Fazlul Haque Amini (1945–2012)
- Gulamur Rahman (1865–1937)
- Hafezzi Huzur (1895–1997)
- Ibrahim Chatuli (1894–1984)
- Ibrahim Ujani (1863–1943)
- Izharul Islam
- Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir (1961–2016)
- Khwaja Yunus Ali (1886–1951)
- Mahfuzul Haque (born 1969)
- Mahmudul Hasan (born 1950)
- Mohammad Akram Khan (1868–1969)
- Muhammad Abdul Malek (born 1969)
- Muhammad Asadullah Al-Ghalib (born 1948)
- Muhammad Faizullah (1892–1976)
- Muhammad Shahidullah (1885–1969)
- Muhammad Wakkas (1952–2021)
- Muhibbullah Babunagari (born 1935)
- Muhiuddin Khan (1935–2016)
- Mushahid Ahmad Bayampuri (1907–1971)
- Nur Hossain Kasemi (1945–2020)
- Nur Uddin Gohorpuri (1924–2005)
- Nurul Islam Farooqi (died 2014)
- Nurul Islam Jihadi (1948-2021)
- Nurul Islam Olipuri (born 1955)
- Obaidul Haque (1934–2008)
- Obaidullah Hamzah (born 1972)
- Ruhul Amin (born 1962)
- Sayed Muhammad Amimul Ehasan Barkati (1911–1974)
- Syed Najibul Bashar Maizbhandari (born 1959)
- Syed Rashid Ahmed Jaunpuri (1889–2001)
- Sajidur Rahman (born 1964)
- Sayed Kamaluddin Zafree (born 1945)
- Shah Ahmad Hasan (1882–1967)
- Shah Ahmad Shafi (1916–2020)
- Shahidul Islam (1960-2023)
- Shahinur Pasha Chowdhury (b. 1985)
- Shamsul Haque Faridpuri (1896–1969)
- Shamsul Huda Panchbagi (1897–1988)
- Sultan Zauq Nadvi (born 1939)
- Syed Fazlul Karim (1935–2006)
- Syed Mohammad Saifur Rahman (born 1916)
- Syed Rezaul Karim (born 1971)
- Ubaidul Haq (1928–2007)
- Zia Uddin (born 1941)
India
- Abdul Ghani Azhari (1922–2023)
- Abdul Hamid Qadri Badayuni (1898–1970)
- Abdul Haq Azmi (1928–2016)
- Abdul Jalil Choudhury (1925-1989)
- Abdul Khaliq Sambhali (1950–2021)
- Abdul Rashid Dawoodi (born 1979)
- Abdul Razzaq (1932–2021)
- Anzar Shah Kashmiri (1927–2008)
- Ameen Mian Qaudri (born 1955)
- Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi (1856 - 1921)
- Hassan Raza Khan (1859-1908)
- Atiqur Rahman Usmani (1901–1984)
- Bashir al-Najafi (born 1942)
- Bashir-ud-din Farooqi (1934–2019)
- E. K. Aboobacker Musliyar (1914–1996)
- Faizul Waheed (1966–2021)
- Fuzail Ahmad Nasiri (born 1978)
- Habibur Rahman Khairabadi (born 1933)
- Hafizur Rahman Wasif Dehlavi (1910–1987)
- Hamid al-Ansari Ghazi (1909–1992)
- Hashmi Miya (born 1947)
- Kafilur Rahman Nishat Usmani (1942–2006)
- Kalbe Abid (1923–1986)
- Kalbe Sadiq (1939–2020)
- Kanniyath Ahmed Musliyar (1900–1993)
- Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar (born 1931)
- Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born 1956)
- Mohammad Najeeb Qasmi
- Masroor Abbas Ansari (born 1975)
- Muhammad Salim Qasmi (1926–2018)
- Muhammad Sufyan Qasmi (born 1954)
- Muhammad Taqi Amini (1926–1991)
- Muhammad Yunus Jaunpuri (1937–2017)
- Minnatullah Rahmani (1913–1991)
- Muhammad Madni Ashraf Ashrafi Al-Jilani (born 1938)
- Shah Syed Hasnain Baqai
- Mujahidul Islam Qasmi (1936–2002)
- Mustafa Raza Khan Qadri (1892-1981)
- Nazir Ahmad Qasmi (born 20 June 1964)
- Nizamuddin Asir Adrawi (1926–2021)
- Noor Alam Khalil Amini (1952–2021)
- Qamaruzzaman Azmi (born 1946)
- Rafiq Ahmad Pampori (born 1956)
- Rahmatullah Mir Qasmi (born 1956)
- Saeed Ahmad Akbarabadi (1908–1985)
- Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi (1927–2002)
- Salman Mazahiri (1946–2020)
- Sayyid Abdurahman Imbichikoya Thangal Al-Aydarusi Al-Azhari (1922–2015)
- Sayyid Ibraheem Khaleel Al Bukhari (born 1964)
- Shihabuddeen Ahmed Koya Shaliyathi (1884-1954)
- Shakir Ali Noori (born 1960)
- Shams Naved Usmani (1931–1993)
- Syed Ahmad Hashmi (1932–2001)
- Syed Aqeel-ul-Gharavi (born 1964)
- Syed Hamidul Hasan
- Syed Mohammed Mukhtar Ashraf (1916-1996)
- Syed Muhammedali Shihab Thangal (1936–2009)
- Syed Zafrul Hasan Rizvi (1911–1983)
- Usman Mansoorpuri (1944–2021)
- Wahiduddin Khan (1925–2021)
- Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi (1944–2020)
- Zayn al-Abidin Sajjad Meerthi (1910–1991)
- Zeeshan Haider Jawadi (1938–2000)
- Ziauddin Madani (1877-1981)
- Ziaul Mustafa Razvi Qadri (born 1935)
- Kaif Raza Khan (born 2001)
- Tauqeer Raza Khan (Islamic Cleric)
Indonesia
- Tuan Guru Haji Ahmad (1885–1949)
- Zakaria bin Muhammad Amin (1913–2006)
- Abdurrahman Wahid (1940–2009)
- B.J. Habibie (1936-2019)
- Fakih Usman (1904–1968)
- Hamka (1908–1981)
- Ilyas Ruhiat (1934–2007)
- Maria Ulfah (born 1955)
- Mas Mansoer (1896–1946)
- Mohammad Natsir (1908–1993)
- Quraish Shihab (born 1944)
- Siti Noordjannah Djohantini (born 1958)
- Siti Chamamah Soeratno (born 1941)
Malaysia
- Abdul Hadi Awang (born 1947)
- Asri Zainul Abidin (born 1971)
- Fathul Bari Mat Jahya (born 1980)
- Haron Din (1940–2016)
- Harussani Zakaria (1939-2021)
- Hussain Yee (born 1950)
- Juanda Jaya (born 1972)
- Maszlee Malik (born 1974)
- Nenney Shushaidah Binti Shamsuddin (born 1975)
- Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat (1931–2015)
- Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (born 1931)
- Yusof Rawa (1922-2000)
- Zailan Morris
- Zulkifli Mohamad Al-Bakri (born 1969)
Pakistan
- Abu Salman Shahjahanpuri (1940–2021)
- Aqeel Turabi (1934-2009)
- Abu Yahya (born 1969)
- Abdul Sattar Khan Niazi (1915–2001)
- Abul A'la Maududi (1903-1979)
- Alauddin Siddiqui (1936–2017)
- Amin Ahsan Islahi (1904–1997)
- Ameer Muhammad Akram Awan (1934–2017)
- Ehsan Elahi Zaheer (1940-1987)
- Fateh Muhammad Panipati (1905–1987)
- Ghulam Ali Okarvi (1919–2000)
- Ghulam Ahmed Perwez (1903–1985)
- Ghulam Mohi-ud-Din Ghaznavi (1902–1975)
- Hakeem Muhammad Akhtar (1928–2013)
- Ilyas Qadri (12 July 1950)
- Israr Ahmed (1932–2010)
- Javed Ahmad Ghamidi (born 1952)
- Khadim Hussain Rizvi (1966–2020)
- Khalid Masud (1935–2003)
- Khurshid Ahmad (born 1932)
- Muhammad Adil Khan (1957-2020)
- Muhammad Hanif Nadvi (1908–1987)
- Muhammad Ishaq Madni (1935–2013)
- Muhammad Ilyas Attar Qadri (born 1950)
- Muhammad Rafi Usmani (1936–2022)
- Muhammad Raza Saqib Mustafai (born 1972)
- Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri (born 1951)
- Muhammad Taqi Usmani (born 1949)
- Muneeb-ur-Rehman (born 1945)
- Nizamuddin Shamzai (1952– 2004)
- Rasheed Turabi (1908–1973)
- Shah Ahmad Noorani (1926–2003)
- Shah Turab ul Haq (1944–2016)
- Syed Adnan Kakakhail (born 1975)
- Syed Jawad Naqvi (born 1952)
- Syed Shehanshah Hussain Naqvi (born 1974)
- Syed Shujaat Ali Qadri (1941–1993)
- Talib Jauhari (1939–2020)
- Tariq Jamil (born 1953)
- Engineer Muhammad Ali Mirza (born 1977)
- Uzair Gul Peshawari (1886-1989)
- Zar Wali Khan (1953–2020)
Uzbekistan
- Muhammad Sadik Muhammad Yusuf (1952–2015)
China
- Du Shuzhen (born 1924)
- Muhammad Ma Jian (1906–1978)
Philippines
- Said Ahmad Basher (born 1951)
- Ahmad Bashir (1919-1989)
Europe
The Balkans
- Abdul Qader Arnaoot (1928–2004) Kosovo
- Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani (1914–1999) Albania
- Mustafa Cerić (born 1952) Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Shefqet Krasniqi (born 1966) Kosovo
- Shuaib Al Arna'ut (1928-2016) Albania
- Vehbi Sulejman Gavoçi (1923-2013) Albania
Austria
- Adnan Ibrahim (born 1966)
- Muhammad Asad (1900–1992)
Germany
- Ahmad Milad Karimi (born 1979)
- Halima Krausen (born 1949)
Ireland
- Umar Al-Qadri (born 1982)
United Kingdom
- Abdul Qayum (born 1960) London
- Abdur Rahman ibn Yusuf Mangera (born 1974)
- Abu-Abdullah Adelabu London
- Abu Yusuf Riyadh ul Haq (born 1971) Leicester
- Ajmal Masroor (born 1971) London
- Ahmed Saad Al-Azhari (born 1978) London
- Haifaa Jawad Birmingham
- Haitham al-Haddad (born 1971) London
- Ibrahim Mogra (born 1965) Leicester
- Joel Hayward (born 1964) Cambridge
- Khurshid Ahmad (scholar) (born 1932) Leicester
- Martin Lings (1909–2005) Manchester
- Mohammad Akram Nadwi (born 1964) Oxford
- Muhammad Abdul Bari (born 1953) London
- Muhammad ibn Adam Al-Kawthari, Leicester
- Musharraf Hussain (born 1962) Nottingham
- Nahiem Ajmal (born 1979)
- Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood (born 1942) London
- Shabbir Akhtar (born 1960) Bradford
- Timothy Winter (born 1960) London
- Yasser Al-Habib (born 1979)
- Yusuf Motala (1946–2019) Lancashire
Switzerland
- Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998)
- Tariq Ramadan (born 1962) Geneva
North America
Canada
- Ahmad Kutty (born 1946), Toronto
- Faraz Rabbani, Ontario
- Farhat Hashmi (born 1957)
- Ingrid Mattson (born 1963), Ontario[1][2][3]
- Jamal Badawi, Halifax, Nova Scotia
- Muzaffar Iqbal (born 1954), Edmonton
- Reza Hosseini Nassab (born 1960), Toronto
United States
- Aminah McCloud (born 1958)
- Amina Wadud (born 1952)
- Amir Hussain Los Angeles, CA
- Asifa Quraishi
- Asma Barlas (born 1950)
- Azizah Y. Al-Hibri (born 1943) Virginia
- Caner Dagli
- Dalia Mogahed
- Fazlur Rahman (1919–1988) Illinois
- Fetullah Gulen (born 1941) Pennsylvania
- Hamza Yusuf (born 1958) Berkeley, CA[4]
- Hamid Algar (born 1940) Berkeley, CA
- Hassan Hathout (1924–2009) Pasadena. CA
- Jonathan A.C. Brown (born 1977) Washington DC
- Kecia Ali (born 1972) Massachusetts
- Khaled Abou El Fadl (born 1963) California
- Khalid Yahya Blankinship (born 1949) Philadelphia, PA
- Laleh Bakhtiar (1938-2020)
- Louay Safi (born 1955)
- Maria Massi Dakake (born 1968)
- Mohammed Adam El-Sheikh (born 1945) Virginia
- Mohammad Hassan Khalil Michigan
- Muqtedar Khan (born 1966) Delaware
- Muzammil H. Siddiqi (born 1943)
- Omar Khalidi (1953–2010)
- Omar Suleiman Texas
- Omid Safi North Carolina
- Ovamir Anjum Ohio
- Riffat Hassan (born 1953)
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr (born 1933)
- Sherman Jackson California
- Umar Faruq Abd-Allah (born 1948) Chicago
- Wael Hallaq (born 1955) New York
- Warith Deen Mohammed (1933–2008) Illinois
- Yasir Qadhi (born 1975) Texas
- Yasir Nadeem al Wajidi (born 1982) Chicago
- Zaid Shakir (born 1956) California
Trinidad
- Imran N. Hosein (born 1942)
Oceania
Australia
- Charis Waddy (1909–2004)[5]
- Fehmi Naji (1928–2016)
- Ibrahim Abu Mohamed
- Taj El-Din Hilaly (born 1941)
New Zealand
- Joel Hayward (born in Christchurch in 1964), lives in Cambridge, UK
See also
- Allamah
- Education in Islam
- Islamic studies by author (non-Muslim or academic)
- Islamic studies
- List of Muslim comparative theologians
- List of female Islamic scholars
- List of Islamic historians
- List of Islamic jurists
- List of Islamic philosophers
- List of Muslim astronomers
- List of Muslim mathematicians
- List of Muslim scientists
- List of contemporary Sufi scholars
References
- "About Dr. Ingrid Mattson | Ingrid Mattson". ingridmattson.org. Retrieved 2018-10-06.
- "Scholar spotlight: Ingrid Mattson, paving the way for women scholars". www.aquila-style.com. Retrieved 2018-10-06.
- University, Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs at Georgetown. "Ingrid Mattson". berkleycenter.georgetown.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-10-06. Retrieved 2018-10-06.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - "Drumwright Family Lecture Series Will Host Distinguished Scholars". Media Communications | Baylor University. 2018-10-01. Retrieved 2018-10-06.
- "Waddy, Charis (1909–2004)". Dictionary of Women Worldwide: 25,000 Women Through the Ages. 2006. Retrieved 22 July 2021 – via Encyclopedia.com.
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