Ahom kingdom

Sukaphaa (1228–1268) spent a couple of decades moving from place to place establishing colonies and finally settled down in Charaideo in 1253.[26][27] He established the offices of the Dangarias— the Burhagohain (Chao-Frongmung) and the Borgohain (Chao-Thaonmung).[28] In the 1280s, these two offices were given independent regions of control; partly hereditary and partly elected, the king and the two counsellors held each other in check and balance.[28] These institutions of checks and balances thus seeded held fast for six hundred years—in the 18th century John Peter Wade, a British officer, observed these unique institutions and novel system of government.[29] Sukaphaa had instructed that events during his rule be chronicled, a practice sustained by his successors; and there emerged the institution of Buranji writing, a practice of historiography rare in India.[30] In the late medieval era, the Ahom kingdom was known to be a kaghazi raj (a kingdom with records) just as the Mughal Empire was.[31]

At the time of their advent, the Ahoms came with advanced technologies of rice cultivation, and it was their belief that they were divinely ordained to turn fallow land to agriculture and also to absorb stateless and shifting agriculturists to their own ways.[32] The shifting people were called kha and many such kha people were ceremonially adopted into different Ahom clans,[33] a process called Ahomisation. Sukaphaa befriended those among the Morans and Barahi who were amenable to join him and put to the sword those who opposed him,[34] and in due course, many others were incorporated into Ahom clans.[35] The Ahoms were acutely aware of their smaller numbers, and adroitly avoided confrontations with larger groups.[36] The additions via Ahomisation enhanced the Ahom numbers significantly. This process of Ahomization was particularly significant till the 16th century when under Suhungmung, the kingdom made large territorial expansions at the cost of the Chutiya and the Kachari kingdoms.

At this initial stage the kingdom was still not fully sovereign. Sukaphaa sent his word of allegiance and tributes to Mong Mao, a practice that was continued by some of his successors till about the early 14th century when the power of Mong Mao faded to be replaced the power of Mong Kwang, at which point the Ahoms stopped the tributes.[37] The Ahoms began to call their domain Mong Dun Sun Kham ("a country of golden gardens").[38] Though Sukaphaa had avoided the Namdang region mindful of the numerically small Ahom contingent,[39] but his son Suteuphaa made the Kacharis withdraw on their own via a stratagem and the Ahoms expanded into it;[40] but no further expansions of the Ahom domain occurred for the next two hundred years. The Ahom kingdom, for most of its history, had been closed and population movement closely monitored—nevertheless, there were two significant contacts. One was a friendly encounter with Chutia kingdom that turned into a conflict, and the other was a marriage alliance with the Kamata kingdom.[41] At the end of the 14th century, the nascent Ahom polity faced crises of succession, two regicides, and three quick interregnum periods when the kingdom was without a king.[42]

Sudangphaa Bamuni Konwar (r. 1397–1407), born and raised in a Brahmin household in Habung, was identified as a descendant of a past king and installed on the throne by the Burhaohain and Borgohain to end the period of crisis.[43] He established Brahmin officers, advisors and communities near the capital and the Brahmin influence, though negligible, was felt for the first time.[44] A number of rebellions erupted purportedly against this influence but Sudangphaa was able to suppress them and solidify his rule.[45] One of the rebels invited a military expedition from Mong Kwang (called Nara in the Buranjis, the successor state of Mong Mao to which the early Ahom kings used to send tribute) resulting in a clash in 1401—but Sudangphaa defeated the expedition and concluded the conflict with a treaty that fixed the boundary between the two polities at Patkai.[46] This event was significant since it moved the Ahom polity from implicit subordination to explicit sovereignty, and this was accompanied by the transition of the name of the polity from Mong-Dun-Sun-Kham to "Assam",[12] a derivative from Shan/Shyam.[47] Sudangphaa established a new capital at Charagua, broke the clan allegiances that held the Ahom polity together earlier replacing it with political authority of the king, and introduced the tradition of the singarigharutha ceremony, the state coronation of the Ahom kings that symbolised royal Ahom sovereignty, authority and legitimacy.[48] Sudangphaa brought the Ahom kingdom very close to a full-fledged state.[49]

The next hundred years saw the kingdom mostly suppressing rebellious Naga groups, but a conflict with the Dimasa kingdom in 1490 saw the Ahoms, not strong enough to take them on frontally, suing for peace.[50] The Ahom royalty continuously improved their relationship with the Brahmans which enabled them to gain goodwill with the Indo-Aryanized tribal groups and consolidate power.[51]

The Ahom kingdom transitioned into a full state rather dramatically in a short period during the reign of Suhungmung Dihingia Raja (r. 1497–1539).[52] It began first with a consolidation of the militia in 1510,[53] followed by an expansion into the Bhuyan region at Habung in 1512 (probably with the help of the descendants of the Habungia Brahmans settled during Sudangpha's time[54]). The Indo-Aryan Bhuyans were relocated to the capital and absorbed into the lower echelons of the growing state as scribes and warriors.[55] They in turn helped in the elimination of the royalty of the advanced Chutia kingdom in 1523; and that kingdom's nobility, commanders, professional classes, warriors and technologies were absorbed into the Ahom kingdom.[56] It was this formation of the Ahom kingdom that met the aggression from Bengal under Turbak in 1532 and it was able to eliminate the aggressive leadership (with significant loss to itself) and pursue the retreating invaders to the Karatoya river.[57] In 1536, after the series of contacts with the Kachari kingdom, the Ahom rule extended up to the Kolong river in Nagaon;[58] and by the end of Suhungmung's reign, the size of the kingdom had effectively doubled.[59]

These expansions created significant changes in the kingdom—the Assamese speaking Hindu subjects outnumbered the Ahoms themselves;[60] and the absorption of the Chutia kingdom meant a wide range of artisan skills became available to it increasing the scope for division of labour.[61] To provide legitimacy to the rule of the Ahom kings among the new subjects Suhungmung assumed the title Swarganarayana (Swargadeo),[62] though nothing like the Rajputisation process occurred with the Ahoms.[63] The nature of the kings institutional relationship to the ministers changed with the creation of a new position, the Borpatrogohain, named after a Chutia office;[64][65] and the creation of the offices of Sadiyakhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Chutia kingdom)[66] and the Marangikhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Kachari kingdom),[58] both of which were reserved for the Borgohain and Burhagohain lineages.[67] The traditional nobles (Chao) now aligned with the Brahmin literati and an expanded ruling class developed.[68] And when the Ahoms under Ton Kham Borgohain[69] pursued the invaders and reached the Karatoya river[70] they began to see themselves as the rightful heir of the erstwhile Kamarupa kingdom.[71]

The Ahom kingdom became more broad-based and took many features of its mature form under Pratap Singha (r. 1603–1641), primarily to meet the sustained attacks from the Mughals.[72] The Paik system was reorganized in 1609 under the professional khel system, replacing the kinship-based phoid system; and paiks could be permanently alienated to non-royal institutions via royal grants.[73] Under the same king, the offices of the Borphukan (viceroy of territories acquired from the Koches and the Mughals), and the Borbarua (the "secretary" of the royal government) were established to increase the number of Patra Mantris to five, along with other smaller offices.[72] The practices of using Brahmins solely for diplomatic missions,[74] the Ahom kings adopting a Hindu name in addition to their Ahom names, and patronising Hindu establishments began with Pratap Singha, though formal initiation of the Ahom kings into Hinduism did not occur till 1648.[75] The Assamese language entered the Ahoms court for the first time and briefly coexisted and eventually replaced the Ahom language.[76] No more major restructuring of the state structure was attempted until the end of the kingdom.

After the division of the Koch kingdom between two branches of the Koch dynasty in 1581, the Ahoms allied with their immediate western neighbor, the Koch Hajo branch, from 1603 to prop them as a buffer against the Mughals who had extended their rule to Bengal by 1576. The collapse of the Koch Hajo power in 1614 resulted in the Mughals coming to power up to the Barnadi river. The Mughals attempted further ingress to the east in 1616 with the Battle of Samdhara which marked the beginning of the Ahom–Mughal conflicts which lasted the till 1682 in the Battle of Itakhuli, when the Ahoms were able to push the Mughals back to the west of the Manas river permanently.

In 1657, owing to the 'War of succession' among the sons of Shah Jahan. Ahom king Jayadhwaj Singha extended his authority, occupied Kamrup, preventing the other rebellious Koch king Pran Narayan from securing his footing. He speedily extended his authority over whole of western Assam. He brought under his domain the whole Brahmaputra Valley, from Sadiya in the east and Sherpur on the south. Thus, the Ahom state attained the greatest territorial zenith.

In 1662, Aurangzeb to bring the lost tracts and to punish the rebels elements in that quarter, launched an invasion under his chief lieutenant Mir Jumla II, in this invasion the Ahoms could not resist up well, and the Mughals occupied the capital, Garhgaon. Unable to keep it, and in at the end of the Battle of Saraighat, the Ahoms not only fended off a major Mughal invasion but extended their boundaries west, up to the Manas river. The western border was fixed at Manas river after the Battle of Itakhuli, which remained the same till the annexation by the British.

Following the Battle of Saraighat, the kingdom fell straight under ten years of political disorder. During this period the nobles exercised immense power, and seven kings were put on the throne and deposed. In the meantime, Kamrup went back in the hands of Mughals for a few years.

Gadadhar Singha (r. 1682–1696) established the 'Tungkhungia rule' in Assam, which continued to remain in power till the end of the kingdom. In 1682, the Mughals were defeated in the Battle of Itakhul, and Manas river was fixed as the western boundary. Gadadhar Singha came in conflict with the Vaisnava Satras who began commencing immense power and influence over the state and people, and started a wide–spread persecution of the Vaisnavites.

King Siva Singha and Bar–Raja Ambika riding litter

The rule of Tungkhungia Ahom kings was marked by achievements in the Arts and engineering constructions, the Tungkhungia reigme witnessed a relative time of peace and stability till the Moamoria rebellion, also festering internal conflicts that tore the kingdom asunder. According to Guha (1986) Ahom Assam continued to flourish till 1770. The Tungkhungia regime witnessed a relative time of peace till first half of the 18th century, where the population increased, trade expanded, Coinage and monetization made headway. New arts and crafts, new crops and even new style of dress were introduced.

Rudra Singha alias Sukhrungphaa (r. 1696–1714), under whom the Kingdom attained its zeinth. He subdued the kingdoms of Dimasa and Jaintia. He had made extensive preparations to extend the boundary west–towards, attempted to make a confederacy of Hindu kings of eastern India against Mughals. But he died right before he could execute his plans in 1714. Rudra Singha had re–instated the Vaisnava Satras, he himself had taken initiation of the Auniati Gosain (the most influential Brahmana Sattradhikar) but later in his life he got inclined towards Shaktism, considering it to be more suitable for a monarch, he invited a famous Sakta Brahmana from Bengal–Krishnaram Bhattacharya alias Pravatiya Gosain. From his death bed he expressed his will that, all his five sons to be kings in a executive manner and advised them to take initiation of Parvatiya Gosain[77]

Ahom King Siva Singha riding elephant with attendants

Siva Singha alias Sutanphaa (r. 1714–1744), he dropped his father's plan to invade Benagal. He took the initiation of Parvatiya Gosain and established him 'Nilachal mountain' with extensive land grants and paiks.[78] Siva Singha was very much under the influence of Brahmanas and astrologers, 1722 it was predicted by the astrologers that his reign would soon come to a end owing to the evil influence of Chatra–bhanga–yoga.[79] Therefore, he transferred the royal umbrella and throne to his wife Phuleshwari who was given the title of 'Bar–Raja' on the advice of Pravatiya Gosain. Phuleswari melded too much with the religious affairs, she had caused the insult of the Shudra–Mahantas.[25] After the death of Phuleswari, two other wives of Siva Singha were set on the position of 'Bar–Raja', namely Ambika and Sarbeswari. Siva Singha reign was peaceful, except an expedition sent against the Daflas, he had caused the erection of many temples and made numerous grants to the religious sites and brahmanas. He died in 1744, and his younger brother Pramatta Singha was set up on the throne setting aside the claims of Siva Singha's son.[80]

Pramatta Singha alias Sunenphaa (r. 1744–1751), nothing of importance is recorded during his reign. He had erected the Rang Ghar with mansory and built the Sukreswar and Rudreswar temples in Noth–Guwahati. During his reign, Kirti Chandra Borbarua gained much of his political influence. In 1744, he received an ambassador from the king of Twipra. He died in 1751.

Rajeswar Singha alias Supremphaa (r. 1751–1759), he was put on the throne by Kirti Chandra Borbarua by setting aside the claims of seniority of his elder brother Barjana Gohain. Rajeswar Singha had erected the most number of temples among the Ahom Kings, he was an orthodox Hindu and took initiation of Nati–Gosian (a relative of Pravatiya Gosain). In 1765, he sent an expedition to Manipur whose king Jay Singha made an appeal to the Ahom king to recover his country from the Burmese occupation. The first expeditionary force had to be routed off, which was sent through 'Naga Hills', in 1767 another force was despatched through the old Raha route. The second expedition was successful and achieved its objective in recovering Manipur. Kirti Chandra Borbarua who was the most influential noble in the Ahom court, had caused the burning of Buranjis.[81] Rajeswar Singha's reign marked the end of Ahom supremacy and glory, the signs were decay was already visible during his reign. He was succeeded by his younger brother Lakshmi Singha alias Sunyeophaa (r. 1769–1780).[82]

The Ahom kingdom by the mid-18th century was indeed an over-burdened hierarchical structure, supported by a weak institutional base and meagre economic surplus. The Paik system which in the 17th century had helped the kingdom to repulse the repeated Mughal invasions, had become extremely outdated.[83] The later phase of the rule was also marked by increasing social conflicts, leading to the Moamoria rebellion were able to capture and maintain power at the capital Rangpur for some years but were finally removed with the help of the British under Captain Welsh. The following repression led to a large depopulation due to emigration as well as execution, but the conflicts were never resolved. A much-weakened kingdom fell to repeated Burmese attacks and finally after the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, the control of the kingdom passed into British hands.

Trade was carried on usually through barter and use of circulation of money was limited. According to Shihabududdin Tailash, currency in the Ahom kingdom consisted of cawries, rupees and gold coins. With the increase of external trade since the reign of Rudra Singha, there was a corresponding increase in the circuation of money. Inscriptions dating from the reign of Siva Singha, gives the price of number of commodities like rice, ghee, oil, pulses, goat, pegion in connection with worship in different temples of the kingdom.[84] This concludes that the barter economey was in the process of being replaced by the money economy, which was the outcome of Assam's developing economic ties both with feudal India and the neighbouring countries of the north east.

Due to trade with Tibet, a coin of Jayadhwaj Singha carries a single Chinese character on each side reading Zang Bao. This had been translated as 'treasury of your honour'. Nicholas Rodhes read the inscription as 'Currency of Tibet', Also these two characters were used by the Chinese in Lhasa between 1792 and 1836 with the meaning 'Tibetan currency. Furthermore, there was a significant contact between China and tibet in the mid-seventeen century, so it is not unlikely that the Assamese would have thought have thought that a Chinese character was an appropriate for Assamese-Tibetan trade coin. This piece evidently was an attempt by Jayadhwaj Singha to facilitate trade with Chinese knowing person coming from the direction of Tibet.[85] Rudra Singha is also said to have established an extensive trade with Tibet and to have encouraged intercourse with other nations although he strictly limited the extent to which foreigners were allowed into the country. Presumably, some of the coins of his reign were struck with the silver earned from these trading activities.[86]

Another point by which we can understand the trade relation of Ahoms with other nations is through the use of Silver coins. It is to be noted that there are no silver mines in the northeast or in the rest of India, so the metal entered as a result of trade.

From 1500 to 1770 A.D., one comes across definite signs of demographic growth in the region. There was terrible depopulation In course of the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805) when more than half of the population fell off. Again, during the Burmese regime, the Burmese depredations (1817-1825) further reduced the population by 1/3. It shows that only 7/8 lakh people remained, at the time of British annexation. King Pratap Singha is who, systematised the population distribution and settlement of villages. The census of adult male population of the state was taken very strictly so that every working man would be registered for the state service. The census were properly recorded in registers called paikar piyalar kakat.[89]

The following table estimates the population composition of classes, during the reign of king Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769). According to the population estimates computed by Gunabhiram Barua.

There were towns, but only a small percentage of the population lived in such towns. Some important towns of Ahom time were Rangpur, Garhgoan, Guwahati and Hajo. The capital city of Rangpur, was found to be 20 miles (32.18 km) in extent and thickly populated by Capt. Welsh in 1794. The population, however, never exceeded 10 thousand souls.[95]

The Ahom kingdom was ruled by a king, called Swargadeo (Ahom language: Chao-Pha), who had to be a descendant of the first king Sukaphaa. Succession was generally by primogeniture but occasionally the great Gohains (Dangarias) could elect another descendant of Sukaphaa from a different line or even depose an enthroned one.

Dangarias: Sukaphaa had two great Gohains to aid him in administration: Burhagohain and the Borgohain. In the 1280s, they were given independent territories, they were veritable sovereigns in their given territories called bilat or rajya. The Burhagohain's territory was between Sadiya and Gerelua river in the north bank of the Brahmaputra river and the Borgohain's territory was to the west up to the Burai river.[96] They were given total command over the paiks that they controlled. These positions were generally filled from specific families. Princes who were eligible for the position of Swargadeo were not considered for these positions and vice versa. In the 1527, Suhungmung added a third Gohain, Borpatrogohain.[97] The Borpatrogohain's territory was located between the territories of the other two Gohains.

Royal officers: Pratap Singha added two offices, Borbarua and Borphukan, that were directly under the king. The Borbarua, who acted as the military as well as the judicial head, was in command of the region east of Kaliabor not under the command of the Dangarias. He could use only a section of the paiks at his command for his personal use (as opposed to the Dangariyas), the rest rendering service to the Ahom state. The Borphukan was in military and civil command over the region west of Kaliabor, and acted as the Swargadeo's viceroy in the west. Borbaruas were mostly from different Moran, Kachari, Chiring and Khamti communities, while Borphukans were from the Chutia community.[98] The Borbarua and Borphukan offices were not hereditary and thus could be chosen from any families.

Patra Mantris: The five positions constituted the Patra Mantris (Council of Ministers). From the time of Supimphaa (1492–1497), one of the Patra Mantris was made the Rajmantri (Prime Minister, also Borpatro; Ahom language: Shenglung) who enjoyed additional powers and the service of a thousand additional paiks from the Jakaichuk village.

The Borbarua and the Borphukan had military and judicial responsibilities, and they were aided by two separate councils (sora) of Phukans. The Borphukan's sora sat at Guwahati and the Borbarua's sora at the capital. Six of them formed the council of the Borbarua with each having his separate duties. The Naubaicha Phukan, who had an allotment of thousand men managed the royal boats, the Bhitarual Phukan, the Na Phukan, the Dihingia Phukan, the Deka Phukan, and the Neog Phukan formed the council of Phukan. The Borphukan also had a similar council of six subordinate Phukans whom he was bound to consult in all matters of importance. This council included Pani Phukan, who commanded six thousand paiks, Deka Phukan who commanded four thousand paiks, the Dihingia Phukan, Nek Phukan and two Chutiya Phukans.

The superintending officers were called Baruas. The Baruas of whom there were twenty or more included Bhandari Barua or treasurer; the Duliya Barua, who was in charge of the royal palanquins; the Chaudang Barua who superintended executions; Khanikar Barua was the chief artificer; Sonadar Barua was the mint master and chief jeweler; the Bez Barua was the physician to the Royal family, Hati Barua, Ghora Barua, etc. Other officials included twelve Rajkhowas, and a number of Katakis, Kakatis, and Dolais. The Rajkhowas were governors of given territories and commanders of three thousand paiks. They were the arbitrator who settled local disputes and supervised public works. The Katakis were envoys who dealt with foreign countries and hill tribes. The Kakatis were writers of official documents. The Dolais expounded astrology and determined auspicious time and dates for any important event and undertaking.

Members of the royal families ruled certain areas, and they were called Raja.

• Charing Raja, the heir apparent to the Swargadeo, administered the tracts around Joypur on the right bank of the Burhidihing river.
• Tipam Raja is the second in line.
• Namrup Raja is the third in line

Members of the royal families who occupy lower positions are given regions called mels, and were called meldangia or melkhowa raja. Meldangia Gohains were princes of an even lesser grade, of which there were two: Majumelia Gohain and Sarumelia Gohain.[99]

Royal ladies were given individual mels, and by the time of Rajeshwar Singha, there were twelve of them. The most important of these was the Raidangia mel given to the chief queen.[100]

Forward governors, who were military commanders, ruled and administered forward territories. The officers were usually filled from the families that were eligible for the three great Gohains.

• Sadiya Khowa Gohain based in Sadiya, administered the Sadiya region that was acquired after the conquest of the Chutia kingdom in 1524.
• Marangi khowa Gohain administered the region that was contiguous to the Naga groups west of the Dhansiri; acquired from the Kachari kingdom in 1526.
• Solal Gohain administered a great part of Nagaon and a portion of Chariduar after the headquarters of the Borphukan was transferred to Gauhati.
• Kajalimukhiya Gohain served under the Borphukan, administered Kajalimukh and maintained relations with Jaintia and Dimarua.[101]
• Khamjangia Gohain administered the region of Khamjang (part of Naga hills).
• Banrukia Gohain administered the region of Banruk (part of Sibsagar district).
• Tungkhungia Gohain administered the region of Tingkhong.
• Banlungia Gohain administered the region of Banlung (Dhemaji) that was acquired after the conquest of the Chutia kingdom in 1524.
• Bhatialia Gohain administered the region of Habung acquired from the Chutia kingdom in 1524. Later Borpatrogohain was created in its place.
• Dihingia Gohain administered the region of Mungklang (Dihing) that was acquired after the conquest of the Chutiya kingdom in 1524.
• Kaliaboria Gohain administered the region of Kaliabor.
• Jagiyal Gohain served under Borbarua, administered Jagi at Nagoan and maintained relations with seven tribal chiefs, called Sat Raja.[101]
• Mohongia Gohain and Mohongor Gohain based in the salt mines of Sadiya and Mohong (Naga hills) conquered from Chutia kingdom and Nagas.

Lesser governors were called Rajkhowas, and some of them were:

• Bacha
• Darrang
• Solaguri
• Abhaypur
• Tapakuchi

The dependent kings or vassals were also called Raja. Except for the Raja of Rani, all paid an annual tribute. These Rajas were required to meet the needs for resources and paiks when the need arose, as during the time of war. There were in total 15 vassal states.[102]

• Darrang Raja ruled the later-day Darrang district and were the descendants of Sundar Narayan, a great-grandson of Chilarai of the Koch dynasty.
• Rani
• Beltola ruled the tracts southwest of Guwahati and were the descendants of Gaj Narayan, a grandson of Chilarai of the Koch dynasty
• Luki
• Barduar
• Dimarua
• Gobha
• Neli

The other hill states which acknowledged the overlordship and nominal sovereignty of the Ahoms were the states of:

• Jaintia Kingdom
• Dimasa Kingdom
• Manipur Kingdom[103]

• Khyrim

The states of Jaintia and Dimasa paid annual tributes to the Ahom king, acknowledging the overlordship and the vassalage of Ahoms. In this connection, mention be made of the term thapita sanchita (established and preserved) which determined their relationship with the Ahoms.[104]

The Ahom kingdom was dependent on the Paik system, a form of corvee labor, reorganized in 1608 by Momai Tamuli Barbarua.[105] Every common subject was a paik, and four paiks formed a got. At any time of the year, one of the paiks in the got rendered direct service to the king, as the others in his got tended to his fields. The Paik system was administered by the Paik officials: A Bora was in charge of 20 paiks, a Saikia of 100 and a Hazarika of 1000. A Rajkhowa commanded three thousand and a Phukan commanded six thousand paiks.[105]

Supatphaa became acquainted with the land measurement system of Mughals during the time he was hiding in Kamrup before he succeeded to the throne. As soon as the wars with Mughals were over he issued orders for the introduction of a similar system throughout his dominions. Surveyors were imported from Koch Behar and Bengal for the work. It was commenced in Sibsagar and was pushed on vigorously, but it was not completed until after his death. Nagaon was next surveyed, and the settlement which followed was supervised by Rudra Singha himself. According to historians, the method of survey included measuring the four sides of each field with a nal, or bamboo pole of 12 feet (3.7 m) length and calculating the area, the unit was the "lucha" or 144 square feet (13.4 m²) and 14,400 sq ft (1,340 m²). is one "Bigha". Four 'bigha' makes one 'Pura'. A similar land measurement system is still being followed in modern Assam.

The measurement system helped in the equal distribution of land among the paiks as well as among the nobles and officers. Records of land were maintained under an officer called Darabdhara Barua. Thus all cultivable and occupied land, except homesteads and jungles, were surveyed and recorded. The paper on which this was recorded is called perakagaz or perakakat meaning (paper carefully preserved inside of wooden boxes called pera). As the perakagaz were not durable, copper plates called as tamrapatraor phali were issued for important records, particularly of revenue-free lands gifted to religious sites or to Brahamanas.[106]

The numerical strength of Pratap Singha army consisted of 100,000 foot soldiers, 1,000 war elephants and a large fleet, estimated by the author of Badshahnama. The same king army at a different time was estimated by the author of Baharistan-i-Ghaibi at 300,000 foot soldiers, 180 war elephants and 4,000 war-boats. In 1669, the combined strength of the Infantry and cavalry under the command of the Ahoms was estimated at 1 lakh. Rudra Singha had raised a huge army of 4,00,000 to invade Bengal in November of 1714.

The culture of dance and music was widespread and the most popular manifestation of it was Bihu. Different styles of dances were performed Queen Phuleshwari was originally attached to Siva temple at Dergaon. Many types of musical instruments were used. Mughal music performances like Nageras under the Royal patronage were introduced. Rudra Singha had right regards for Mughal music and sent Assamese musicians to Delhi to learn the playing of the instruments like Pakhuaj. The king also appointed certain officers like Gyan barua, for the promotion of music and art.[111] The Assamese monarchs Rudra Singha and his son Siva Singha were both writers of songs. Rajeswar Singha was the author of a drama entitled Kichak Bandh. To celebrate the visit of the Rajas of Manipur and Cachar, a Bhaona entitled as Ravan-Badh, was performed at the Ahom capital Rangpur, Assam and the master of the performance was the Deka-Barbarua, son of Kirti Chandra Barbarua, in this Bhaona[112] 700 men took part.

Ahom architecture

Kareng Ghar is a seven-storied royal palace built by Rajeswar Singha

Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom Kingdom's capital Rangpur, is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent

The metropolis at Rangpur contains the famous Talatal Ghar, Rang Ghar and in Garhgoan, Kareng Ghar.[113]

The first temple thought to be constructed by Ahoms was in the banks of Karatoya by Suhungmung Dihingia Roja, after defeating and chasing the musalman invaders till Karatoya. The most notable temples of the Ahom period are the Sivasagar group of temples constructed between 1731 and 1734 these temples are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi. The Siva temple was built of stone and bricks and is one of the high-altitude Siva temples in India and is a place of great sanctity. Gaurisagar group of temples were constructed between 1715 and 1715 of which the Devi dol is the main temple, beside there is the other two temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu. The Devi dol was built of stone and bricks, its stone artwork is best among the other Ahom temples, next to Joy dol. The Shiva dol of Gaurisagar is very much similar to that of Shiva dol of Sivasagar. The Joysagar group of temples are standing on the bank of Joysagar tank. The temples were constructed in 1698 by Rudra Singha, the main tempe is the Joy dol or the Kesavaraya Vishnu dol, this is the biggest temple based on Nilachal architecture after the Kamakhya Temple. The stone work of Joy dol is the finest among all the Ahom temples, beside Joy dol there are more temples dedicated to Shiva, Ganesha, Devi, and, Surya. Negheriting Shiva Dol constructed in 1765 by Rajeswar Singha.This temple is constructed of brick and stone and is built in Panchayatana style with the main temple in the middle and the subsidiary temple surrounding it, it is one of the most unique temples constructed by Ahoms. The other temples of the Ahoms are the Surya Mandir, the Ranganath Dol, the Fakua Dol and the Ganesa Mandir at Joysagar, the Visnu Dol on the bank of the Rudrasagar Tank near Bhatiapar, the Visnu Dol and the Jagatdhatri Dol at Kalogoan, the Visnu Dol and the Devi Dol on the bank of the Namti tank. The Mahesvara Ghar (Garakhia Dol) on the southern bank of the Dikhow river at Nazira, the Thowra Dol on the north-east of Sibsagar city, the Siva Dol on the bank of the Brahmaputra at Dergaon, the Piyali Phukanar Dol at Galeky, the Bezar Dol at Demow, Hara Gauri dol, Gauri Ballabh dol, and multiple temples at Lower Assam built through the Borphukan, etc. Apart from these there are a number of other temples which exist today only in ruins like the Bogi Dol near Joysagar, the Borpatra Dol at Kenduguri, the Keri Rajmao Dol at Mathichiga, the Ikhneswar Dol at Rangpur, the Govindra Dol at Gargaon, the Langkuri Dol, the Gota Dol at Charaideo, the Naphuki Rajmao Dol at Naphuk, the Sam Rajmao Dol at Nazira etc.[114]

The excavations of tanks was one of the notable works system under Ahoms. There grandeur was enhanced by construction of temples in their bank. Among the largest of tank there is the Joysagar tank excavated by Rudra Singha in 1698, this tank covers a total area of 318 acres of which 155 acres in underwater, many notable temples were constructed on its bank. Phuleswari Devi had excavated the Gaurisagar or Namdangar puskarni in the chronicles, this tank was excavated on (17 Feb, 1724) and the excavation was completed in (30 June 1724).[115] In includes a total area of 293 acre of which 150 acre is underwater, on its bank three temples are built dedicated to Devi, Shiva and Vishnu.[116] Queen Ambika devi had excavated the Sivasagar Tank in 1733, it has a total area of 257 acre of which 127 acre is underwater. Besides this, there are some more great Tanks, like- Lakshmi Sagar, Vishu Sagar or Rajmao Pukhuri, and Rudra Sagar. The number of other tanks excavated by the Ahom rulers is estimated to be approximately, 200.[117]