Economy of Zambia

GDP per capita development of Zambia, since 1950

The British South Africa Company (BSAC, originally set up by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes) retained commercial assets and mineral rights that it acquired from a concession signed with the Litunga of Barotseland in 1892 (the Lochner Concession). Only by threatening to expropriate the BSAC, on the eve of independence, did the incoming Zambian government manage to get the BSAC to relinquish the mineral rights. The Federation's government assigned roles to each of the three territories: Southern Rhodesia was assigned the responsibility of providing managerial and administrative skills; Northern Rhodesia provided copper revenues; and Nyasaland provided the Black labour.

After independence, Zambia instituted a program of national development plans, under the direction of a National Commission for Development Planning: the Transitional Development Plan (1964–66) was followed by the First National Development Plan (1966–71). These two plans, which provided for major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, were largely implemented and were generally successful. This was not true for subsequent plans.

A major switch in the structure of Zambia's economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April 1968: the government declared its intention to acquire equity holdings (usually 51% or more) in a number of key foreign-owned firms, to be controlled by a parastatal conglomerate named the Industrial Development Corporation (INDECO).[40] By January 1970, Zambia had acquired majority holding in the Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesia Selection Trust (RST); the two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively. The Zambian government then created a new parastatal body, the Mining Development Corporation (MINDECO). The Finance and Development Corporation (FINDECO) allowed the Zambian government to gain control of insurance companies and building societies. However, foreign-owned banks (such as Barclays, Standard Chartered and Grindlays) successfully resisted takeover. In 1971, INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the largest companies in sub-Saharan Africa, with the country's president, Kenneth Kaunda as chairman of the board. The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were ended in 1973. In 1982 NCCM and RCM were merged into the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd (ZCCM).

In 1973 a massive increase in the price of oil was followed by a slump in copper prices in 1975, resulting in a diminution of export earnings. In 1973 the price of copper accounted for 95% of all export earnings; this halved in value on the world market in 1975. By 1976 Zambia had a balance-of-payments crisis, and rapidly became massively indebted to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Third National Development Plan (1978–83) had to be abandoned as crisis management replaced long-term planning.

By the mid-1980s Zambia was one of the most indebted nations in the world, relative to its gross domestic product (GDP). The IMF was insisting that the Zambian government should introduce programs aimed at stabilizing the economy and restructuring it to reduce dependence on copper. The proposed measures included: the ending of price controls; devaluation of the kwacha (Zambia's currency); cut-backs in government expenditure; cancellation of subsidies on food and fertilizer; and increased prices for farm produce. Kaunda's removal of food subsidies caused massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs; the country's urbanized population rioted in protest. In desperation, Kaunda broke with the IMF in May 1987 and introduced a New Economic Recovery Programme in 1988. However, this did not help him and he eventually moved toward a new understanding with the IMF in 1989. In 1990 Kaunda was forced to make a major policy volteface: he announced the intention to partially privatize the parastatals. Time, however, was running out for him. Like many African independence leaders Kaunda tried to hang on to power but unlike many he called multiparty elections and lost them to the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) and abided by the results. Kaunda left office with the inauguration of MMD leader Frederick Chiluba as president on 2 November 1991.

Zambia's Economic System of Government is Unitary because of that the Frederick Chiluba government (1991–2001), which came to power after democratic multi-party elections in November 1991, was committed to extensive economic reform.[41]

Zambia's economic transformation into a free market system began toward the end of 1991 following a change of government. To tackle a serious economic crisis, the government agreed to introduce substantial economic reforms to secure much-needed loans from the World Bank and IMF.[23]

One of the greatest challenges was the privatization of the country's copper mines, Zambia's prime export earner. The government privatised many state industries, and maintained positive real interest rates. Exchange controls were eliminated and free market principles endorsed. It remains to be seen whether the Mwanawasa government will follow a similar path of implementing economic reform and undertaking further privatization. Zambia has yet to address issues such as reducing the size of the public sector, which still represents 44% of total formal employment, and improving Zambia's social sector delivery systems.

After the government privatized the giant parastatal mining company Zambian Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM), donors resumed balance-of-payment support. The final transfer of ZCCM's assets occurred on March 31, 2000. Although balance-of-payment payments are not the answer to Zambia's long-term debt problems, it will in the short term provide the government some breathing room to implement further economic reforms. The government has, however, spent much of its foreign exchange reserves to intervene in the exchange rate mechanism. To continue to do so, however, would jeopardize Zambia's debt relief. Zambia qualified for HIPC debt relief in 2000, contingent upon the country meeting certain performance criteria, and this should offer a long-term solution to Zambia's debt situation.

On 2 January 2002, MMD's Levy Mwanawasa won the Presidential election which many observers claimed had actually been won by the opposition.[42] In January 2003, the Zambian Government informed the International Monetary Fund and World Bank that it wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatization of the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities.

Foreign investors liked Mwanawasa, owing partly to his anti-corruption drive. During his presidency, Zambia received foreign investment.[43] The main driver of economic growth was minerals. Mwanawasa's policies helped to lower inflation to single digits in 2006, a record the country had not seen in over 25 years, and spread some benefits to the poor.[43][44] Tourists and white farmers diverted from Zimbabwe and helped the Zambian economy.[43] The policies turned the Zambian town of Livingstone, near Victoria Falls, into a tourist hub.[45] Zambia received a relatively large amount of aid and debt relief because of liberalisation and Mwanawasa's efforts.[43] Overall, economic growth increased to about 6% per year.[43]

After Mwanawasa suffered a stroke while attending an African Union summit in Egypt on 29 June 2008, Rupiah Banda became acting president and subsequently President.[46] With divisions within the MMD, Banda promised to "unite the party and the entire nation" and to "continue implementing [Mwanawasa's] programs".[47] Though, after taking office, Banda dismantled much of the anti-corruption effort put into place by his predecessor, Mwanawasa.[48] This, compounded with the effects of the Global Financial crisis of 2007–2008 led to a sustained period of increased inflation.[44]

In September 2011, the social democrat, Michael Sata led the Patriotic Front (PF) to victory with a vow to improve conditions for their Zambian employees.[49] Though known to previously oppose Chinese investment, he declared his change in perspective prior to his election victory.[50] Sata died on 28 October 2014 and was succeeded by Edgar Lungu. The period, saw an infrastructure boom with the development of the Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station, two multi-purpose stadiums, Levy Mwanawasa Stadium and National Heroes Stadium, expansions of the Kenneth Kaunda International Airport, the Harry Mwanga Nkumbula International Airport and the Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe International Airport, and the Pave Zambia 2000 project[51] intended to create and repair major urban roads countrywide.

Unfortunately this came at a huge debt cost that slowed the economy and compounded by corruption and the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in weak GDP growth and a recession in 2019 and 2020 respectively. Zambia's GDP had shrunk from US$29 billion to US$19 billion and its debt grew from 16% to 140% of GDP from 2010 through 2020.[52][44] In November 2020, Zambia became Africa's first coronavirus-era default when it opted to bow out of a US$42.5 million eurobond repayment.[53]

In August 2021, the Zambian populace ushered in a new government with a promise for jobs growth.[54] Hakainde Hichilema's United Party for National Development (UPND) government delivered an ambitious budget that included an increase in the Constituency Development Fund (CDF) from ZMW 1.6 million (US$91 thousand) to ZMW 25.7 million (US$1.5 million) for each of Zambia's 156 constituencies and its decentralization in release to these constituencies.[55] The expectation is that this will generate jobs growth in addition to the government's targeted employment of 30,000 new teachers[56] and 11,200 health workers.[57] In mid July 2022, the government recruited 30,496 Teachers.[58] At the end of July 2022, 11,276 health workers, being doctors, nurses and ancillary staff such as drivers were recruited by the government.[59]

With a push for Zambia to be able to produce 3 million tonnes of Copper per annum within the next 10 years, the government reintroduced the deductibility of mineral royalty for corporate income tax assessment purposes.[60][61][62][63] The results of these policy changes are yet to be seen.

At the 2022 IMF-World Bank Spring Meetings, the World Bank announced it would fund projects worth US$560 million in Zambia in 2022.[64][65]

In July 2022, to address its debt challenges, the Zambian government engaged creditors of undisbursed loans to facilitate the formal cancellation of loans estimated to be about US$2.0 billion. Projects that were already ongoing would now be financed through government revenues.[66][67]

In early August 2022, the Zambia Development Agency, a quasi-government institution under the Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry reported that it had recorded numerous investment pledges worth US$3.8 billion in the first half to 2022 targeting the agriculture, tourism, construction and mining sectors with a potential job market of 19,000.[68]

In April 2022, Zambia launched a mechanism aimed at unlocking the potential of the private sector as a driver of economic development and job creation. The Public-Private Dialogue Forum (PPDF) is meant to act as a structured mechanism for interactions between the public and the private sector in tackling bottlenecks that have hindered the growth of the private sector.[69]

In May 2022, the inaugural European Union (EU)-Zambia Economic Forum was launched in Lusaka by President Hakainde Hichilema under the theme ‘Economic transformation through green growth’.[70] It was a high-level event that brought together entrepreneurs, experts, financial institutions, innovators, and policy decision-makers from Zambia, the EU and representatives of its 27 member states.[70][71] Additional special guests included the EU Commissioner for Agriculture Janusz Wojciechowski and the commissioner for Trade and Industry of the African Union Commission, Albert M. Muchanga.[72] The forum was launched as a platform with a view to promoting employment, value addition and increased trade through business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-government (B2G) collaboration and economic synergies for EU and Zambian businesses.[70]

In November 2021, the Zambian and British government signed the UK-Zambia Green Growth Compact, an agreement expected to boost the United Kingdom's investment into Zambia by £ 1.0 billion (US$1.26 billion) with a focus on job creation and green energy production.[73] In May 2022, the British High Commissioner to Zambia Nicholas Woolley, indicated that the British government had set aside the £ 1.0 billion to be spent over the next 5 years with £ 100.0 million (US$126.0 million) targeted for funding Small Medium Entrepreneurs (SMEs) and £ 500.0 million (US$629.9 million) for investment in renewable energy.[74]

In July 2022, the World Bank approved US$155.0 million in International Development Assistance for Social Cash Transfer to mitigate the high cost of living pressures in Zambia and a further US$27.0 million credit facility to support the government's development programs.[75]

In July 2022, the World Bank approved a further US$665.0 million to fund projects in Zambia to spur economic recovery and growth and also lighten the debt burden.[76] Through 2032, the World Bank plans to support Zambia with new financing of over US$2.0 billion in the form of concessional loans.[29]

In late October 2022, the World Bank approved US$275.0 million concessional loan targeted at fiscal stabilization and accelerated economic programs. Financing was provided by the World Bank's International Development Association (IDA).[77]

In July 2022, the African Export-Import Bank President Benedict Oramah, whilst in Lusaka Zambia, announced that the bank would put up an investment of about US$250 million for Zambia's first-ever Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) manufacturing plant.[78]

In July 2022, during the 4th Mid-Year Coordination Meeting of the African Union, Regional Economic Communities and Regional Mechanisms in Lusaka, Zambia, the three regional blocs, East African Community (EAC), Southern African Development Community (SADC), and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) agreed to have a tripartite ministers' summit to fast track the finalization of the border control-free travel and free movement of goods and services area by the end of 2022.[79][80]

In September 2022, Zambia and China launched the inaugural trade and investment forum aimed at unlocking trade and investment potential between the two countries. The event also saw the signing of an Exchange Letter of the Duty Free Treatment for Zambian products corresponding to 98-percent of the tariff lines by Finance Minister Situmbeko Musokotwane and Chinese Ambassador to Zambia Du Xiao.[81][82]

In mid-September 2023, President Hakainde Hichilema met with The President of The Peoples Republic of China, Xi Jinping in Beijing where they witnessed the signing of over 15 MOUs amounting to a potential investment of about ZMW 62.3 billion kwacha (US$ 3.0 billion) by China into Zambia and the leaders also agreed to increase the use of local currencies in trade between the two countries.[83][84] One of the MOUs signed during Mr. Hichilema's visit to China was with the international telecoms manufacturer ZTE to construct and open a smartphone manufacturing plant in Zambia.[85][86] In late-September 2023, China Nonferrous Metal Mining Group (CNMC) unveiled plans to inject an additional ZMW 27.0 billion kwacha (US $1.3 billion) into Zambia from 2023 through 2028, spanning the mining, energy, education and technology economic sectors.[87]

In October 2022, more than 50 United States and Zambian business and government leaders gathered in Lusaka for the two-day inaugural U.S.-Zambia Business Summit at the Intercontinental Hotel. Representatives from the U.S. Trade and Development Agency, U.S. International Development Finance Corporation also attended the Summit. The Summit focused on promoting Zambia as one of the most attractive business environments for investment on the African continent.[88]

In 2019, the country was the world's 7th largest producer of copper.[89]

The Zambian economy has historically been based on the copper-mining industry. The industrialization of the copper industry is owed partly to Frederick Russell Burnham, the famous American scout who worked for Cecil Rhodes.[90] By 1998, however, output of copper had fallen to a low of 228,000 tonnes, continuing a 30-year decline in output due to lack of investment, and until recently, low copper prices and uncertainty over privatization. In 2001, the first full year of a privatized industry, Zambia recorded its first year of increased productivity since 1973. The future of the copper industry in Zambia was thrown into doubt in January 2002, when investors in Zambia's largest copper mine announced their intention to withdraw their investment. However, surging copper prices from 2004 to the present day rapidly rekindled international interest in Zambia's copper sector with a new buyer found for KCCM and massive investments in expanding capacity launched. China has become a major investor in the Zambian copper industry, and in February 2007, the two countries announced the creation of a Chinese-Zambian economic partnership zone around the Chambishi copper mine.[91]

Today copper mining is central to the economic prospects for Zambia and covers 85% of all the country's exports, but concerns remain that the economy is not diversified enough to cope with a collapse in international copper prices.

Production of Mineral Raw Materials 2016-2022[92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99]

Year	Copper (MT)	% Growth of Cu	Cobalt (MT)	Gold (kg)	Nickel (MT)	Manganese (MT)	Coal(MT)	Emeralds(kg)	Beryllium (kg)	Sulfur (elemental & industrial) (MT)	Steam Coal (MT)
2016	774,290	8.82%	5,276	4.610	0	27,500	129,470	74,742	5,000	363,000	126,050
2017	799,329	3.23%	2,649	4,373	0	39,900	208,608	65,243	4,000	679,500	208,608
2018	861,946	7.83%	1,766	4,044	0	37,800	344,717	18,869	7,000	947,800	344,717
2019	796,430	-7.60%	1,271	4.522	1,110	15,904	361,648	23,705	7,000	960,300	361,648
2020	882,061	10.75%	367	3,994	3,226	46,515	446,153	7,653	2,000	917,300	448,821
2021	802,967	-8.97%	247	2,432	3,834	132,241	663,345	12,871
2022	763,287	-4.94%	251	1,515	4,059	161,611	781,466	20,703

In January 2013, the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) approved 27 mining and exploration licences, with more rumoured to be confirmed.[100]

Zambia is the world's second biggest producer of emeralds, with its Kafubu River area deposits (Kagem Mines) about 45 km (28 mi) southwest of Kitwe responsible for 20% of the world's production of gem-quality stones in 2004.[101] In the first half of 2011, the Kagem Mines produced 3.74 tons of emeralds.[102] In April 2022, Gemfields, the majority owner in the mine, recorded a record U$42.3 million at a sold out March/April auction and since 2009, Kagem-sourced gemstones (emerald and beryl) have netted Gemfields revenue totaling U$792 million with the proceeds fully repatriated to Kagem in Zambia, with all royalties due to the Zambian government paid on the full sales prices achieved at auctions.[103]

Kagem Mines Performance[104][105]

Year	Premium Emerald (carats)	Emerald and Beryl ('000 carats)
2019	204,600	36,300
2020	133,900	9,400
2021	230,500	32,000
2022	259,500	37,241

Rich deposits of Uranium have been discovered in some parts of Zambia. In 2007, the Zambian government sought scrutiny and guidance from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on its developed guidelines to regulate the mining of uranium in the country.[106] In 2008, deposits were found in Kaputa District, Northern Province.[106][107] Albidon Zambia Limited also confirmed the presence of high-grade uranium mineralisation at its Njame east project near Chirundu.[106] In the Southern Province, 31 km North of Siavonga, and north of Lake Kariba, there are 5 main Uranium Deposits: Mutanga, Dibwe, Dibwe East, Njame, and Gwabe explored under The Mutanga Uranium Project. The Canadian Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX) listed GoviEx Uranium Inc acquired 100% of the Mutanga Project also known as the Kariba Uranium Project in 2016. In March 2022, GoviEx announced that the Project is forecast to start production in 2027 and could be the lowest capital intensive uranium project in Africa.[108]

Lumwana Mining Company Limited (LMC) who had embarked on uranium exploration in 2007 in Solwezi District[109] are currently stock piling uranium that the firm is getting as a by-product of Copper from its operations as they are yet to obtain a uranium license.[110][111] The mining of uranium in Zambia is monitored by the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA).[110]

See Also:

• Munali Nickel Mine estimated development cost U$180 million in 2007[112]
• Enterprise Nickel Project estimated development cost U$275 million[113]

The agriculture sector represented 2.7% GDP in 2019.[114] Agriculture accounted for 85% of total employment (formal and informal) for 2000. Maize (corn) is the principal cash crop as well as the staple food. Other important crops include soybean, cotton, sugar, sunflower seeds, wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, cassava, tobacco and various vegetable and fruit crops. Floriculture is a growth sector, and agricultural non-traditional exports now rival the mining industry in foreign exchange receipts. Zambia has the potential for significantly increasing its agricultural output; currently, less than 20% of its arable land is cultivated. In the past, the agriculture sector suffered from low producer prices, difficulties in availability and distribution of credit and inputs, and the shortage of foreign exchange.

Major Crop Production Statistics and Growth[115][116][117][118][119][120][99]

Year	Maize (MT)	Cassava (MT)	Sugarcane (MT)	Wheat (MT)	Soya Beans (MT)	Sweet Potato(MT)	Cotton (MT)	Groundnuts (MT)	Millet(MT)	Vegetables (MT)	Tobacco(US$)
2010	2,800,000	1,151,000	3,700,000	172,256	111,887	252,867	107,000	164,602	47,997	364,326	147,201,182
2011	3,020,000	1,132,150	4,200,000	237,332	116,539	146,614	131,298	279,000	41,602	335,000	153,242,976
2012	2,850,000	1,107,954	4,300,000	253,522	203,038	163,484	269,501	113,026	28,445	350,000	163,890,992
2013	2,533,000	1,114,583	4,600,000	273,584	262,063	187,774	139,583	106,792	23,942	350,000	169,418,496
2014	3,351,000	919,497	4,600,000	201,504	214,179	149,355	120,314	143,591	30,504	353,586	179,120,836
2015	2,618,000	952,770	4,155,000	309,100	226,323	117,215	103,889	111,429	31,967	374,208	188,823,176
2016	2,873,000	2,222,844	4,083,000	221,644	267,490	230,248	111,902	131,562	29,972	369,542	198,525,516
2017	3,607,000	3,695,182	4,365,965	279,329	351,416	205,834	89,293	168,699	32,566	365,779	205,936,998
2018	2,395,000	4,102,300	4,630,000	171,424	302,720	183,280	88,219	181,772	32,278	369,843	213,838,216
2019	2,004,389	4,036,584	4,682,000	151,850	281,389	109,336	66,315	130,825	24,843	368,338	221,581,410
2020	3,387,469	3,931,915	4,827,104	191,620	296,866	144,706	41.441	127,172	45,005	368,003	185,000,000
2021	3,620,244	3,800,153	5,102,118	205,881	411,115	213,566	31,859	175,329	34,702	445,625	114,184,304
2022	2,653,805	3,315,611		277,586	438,679	162,614	19,375	180,256	24,224		N/A

Cut flowers and flower buds[121] suitable for bouquets or for ornamental purposes, fresh, dried, dyed, bleached, impregnated or otherwise prepared

Year	Exports (US$)	Export Growth%	Imports (US$)
2010	333,520	-62.05%	7,140
2011	17,364,392	5,106.40%	4,574
2012	23,820,333	37.17%	3,369
2013	32,150,400	34.97%	12,039
2014	13,623,771	-57.64%	6,645
2015	12,326,666	-9.52%	20,330
2016	10,371,243	-15.86%	31,849
2017	10,531,349	1.54%	3,065
2018	9,371,243	-6.99%	15,623
2019	8,068,641	-17.61%	17,302
2020	7,051,388	-12.60%	32,755

In 2019 Zambia produced:[122][123]

• 4.7 million tons of sugarcane;
• 4 million tons of cassava (18th largest producer in the world);
• 2 million tons of maize;
• 281 thousand tons of soy;
• 153 thousand tons of tobacco (6th largest producer in the world);
• 151 thousand tons of wheat;
• 130 thousand tons of peanut;
• 109 thousand tons of sweet potato;
• 72 thousand tons of cotton;
• 6,900 tons of coffee;

In addition to other productions of other agricultural products.[122]

Due to high demand for flour in neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC, Zambia increased Wheat production from 205,000 tonnes in 2020 to 400,000 tonnes 2021.[124]

In July 2022, Zambia and China sealed a memorandum of understanding on soya bean meal and stevia export from Zambia to China.[125]

The Fisheries and Livestock sub-sector in Zambia contributes to employment creation, food and nutrition security, and economic growth.

Capture Fishery and Aquaculture Production[115][116][99]

Year	Capture Fishery (MT)	% Growth of Capture Fishery	Aquaculture (MT)	% Growth of Aquaculture
2005	65,927		5,125
2006	60,236	-8.63%	5,125	0.00%
2007	73,542	22.09%	5,120	-0.10%
2008	79,403	7.97%	5,876	14.77%
2009	84,716	6.69%	5,640	-4.02%
2010	76,396	-9.82%	9,535	69.06%
2011	69,364	-9.20%	10,291	7.93%
2012	80,638	16.25%	12,988	26.21%
2013	75,187	-6.76%	20,271	56.07%
2014	80,826	7.50%	19,281	-4.88%
2015	83,719	3.58%	22,753	18.01%
2016	83,918	0.24%	28,669	26.00%
2017	88,075	4.95%	21,567	-24.77%
2018	89,195	1.27%	29,565	37.08%
2019	91,342	2.41%	38,480	30.15%
2020	94,943	3.94%	45,670	18.69%
2021	95,625	0.72%	59,679	30.67%
2022	99, 928	4.50%	75,647	26.70%

Livestock population 2017-2021[115][117][99][126]

Year	Cattle	Sheep	Goats	Pigs	Chickens
2017	3,714,667	170,262	3,583,696	1,082,765	39,147,000
2018	3,927,432	185,105	4,008,197	1,292,287	39,008,000
2019	3,814,438	165,236	3,948,861	1,331,576	39,690,000
2020	3,885,336	174,001	3,957,252	1,166,924	40,438,000
2021	4,371,801	190,876	4,117,674	1,146,276	41,230,000
2022	4,698,972	260,560	4,455,860	1,160,842	30,586,024

Livestock products 2018-2019[115][117][99]

Year	Milk (MT)	Eggs (000)	Hides (MT)	Beef (MT)	Pork (MT)	Poultry (MT)
2018	1,686,400	1,642,693	345,549	6,103,281	555,270	5,111,098
2019	2,045,603	1,744,047	369,357	6,763,045	595,472	5,537,874

In livestock, Zambia produced, in 2019: 191 thousand tons of beef; 50 thousand tons of chicken meat; 34 thousand tons of pork; 453 million liters of cow's milk, among others.[127]

Energy in Zambia is the production of energy and electricity, for consumption or export. The Energy Regulation Board (ERB) has the mandate to balance and safeguard the interests of all energy stakeholders. The Energy policy is as guided by the Energy Regulation Act No. 12 of 2019, the Electricity Act No. 11 of 2019 and the Rural Electrification Act No.20 of 2003.[128]

Electricity Generation in Zambia (2000-2021)[129][130][99]

Year	Total Generation (GWh)	Hydropower (GWh)	Coal Power (GWh)	Solar Power (GWh)	Oil (GWh)	Other Renewables (bioelectricity) (GWh)
2000	7,760	7,670	-	-	70	20
2001	7,900	7,810	-	-	70	20
2002	8,110	8,020	-	-	80	10
2003	8,260	8,170	-	-	80	10
2004	8,460	8,380	-	-	70	10
2005	8,880	8,790	-	-	80	10
2006	9,660	9,570	-	-	80	10
2007	9,600	9,530	-	-	60	10
2008	9,490	9,430	-	-	40	20
2009	9,860	9,780	-	-	50	30
2010	10,410	10.330	-	-	50	30
2011	11,450	11,370	-	-	50	30
2012	12,310	12,230	-	-	50	30
2013	13,230	13,150	-	-	50	30
2014	14,350	13,900	-	-	340	110
2015	14,000	12,910	290	-	700	100
2016	11,610	10,910	460	-	180	60
2017	14,320	12,370	1,140	-	660	150
2018	15,980	13,560	1,420	-	820	180
2019	16,010	13,670	1,300	120	750	170
2020	15,980	13,670	1,270	150	730	160
2021	17,584
2022	19,399

Electrical Energy Export Earnings[131]

Month	ZMW	Month	ZMW	Month	ZMW
Jan-21	259,900,000	Jan-22	-	Jan-23	590,300,000
Fbe-21	-	Feb-22	-	Feb-23	551,600,000
Mar-21	299,900,000	Mar-22	299,900,000	Mar-23	638.600,000
Apr-21	294,100,000	Apr-22	-	Apr-23	600,400,000
May-21	384,400,000	May-22	-	May-23	622,800,000
Jun-21	-	Jun-22	-	Jun-23	587,700,000
Jul-21	210,600,000	Jul-22	-	Jul-23	668.800,000
Aug-21	290,500,000	Aug-22	-	Aug-23	698.400,000
Sep-21	-	Sep-22	696,800,000
Oct-21	-	Oct-22	560,200,000
Nov-21	-	Nov-22	642,100,000
Dec-21	223,100,000	Dec-22	583,900,000

In 2019, Zambia generated a total of 15,013GWh of Energy. 12,427GWh was Renewable and 2,586 GWh was non-renewable. Over 99% of the Renewable energy component was Hydro electricity.[132]

With a view to diversifying the power generation profile, Zambia increased its Solar Power generation Capacity in 2019.[132]

In March 2019, the 54MW Bangweulu Solar Power Station was commissioned.[133]

In May 2019, the 34MW Ngonye Solar Power Station was commissioned.[134]

In July 2022, the local National utility ZESCO, announced it had achieved an electricity generation surplus of about 1,156 MW. Zambia's national generation capacity stands at 3,456.8 MW versus a peak national demand of 2,300 MW. The surplus power is to be directed to service the power supply agreements for the export of 180 MW to Namibia and 100 MW to Zimbabwe.[135] The exportation of 100MW electricity to Zimbabwe which is set to commence in August 2022 is under a five year contract with a condition precedent that ZESCO earns monthly income of US$6.3 million prior exporting to Zimbabwe.[136]

The close of 2022 brought in some serious challenges to the Zambian economy, when low water levels at the Kariba Dam significantly impacted the 1080MW Kariba Hydro Power plant's output capacity and resulted in load shedding for businesses and residents across the country. This was compounded by the maintenance that was being carried out at the 300MW Maamba Coilleries Coal Fired Power Plant.[137][138]

In January 2023, Zambia signed a US$2 billion dollar MOU and Joint Development Agreement (JDA) with the United Arab Emirates for the development of 2000MW of Solar Power Projects.[139]

In April 2023, Zambia, through its state owned utility company ZESCO Limited, signed a ZMW 67 Billion (US$3.4 Billion) Power Purchase Agreement with Integrated Clean Energy Power Company of China to produce 2,400 Mega Watts of renewable energy. Implementation of the project is expected to be done in a phased manner with the first phase producing 600MW of solar energy distributed as one 300MW power plant in Central Province and another 300MW Power plant in Southern Province. The two 300MW solar power plants of phase one are expected to be connected to the National Grid by the end of 2024.[140]

Zambia is a net importer of petroleum and in 2019, Oil & Mineral Fuels ranked top amongst the country's trade imports at a value of U$1.26 billion.[141]

In January 2022, the ERB migrated from a Quarterly pricing cycle to a monthly pricing cycle to enable the local price of fuel to be more responsive to the market fundamentals namely: international oil prices and the Kwacha/US Dollar exchange rate prevailing in the month preceding the pricing decision.[142] Further, following the UPND governments' policy decision to place INDENI Petroleum Refinery on care and maintenance, the nation moved to one type of Diesel sold on the market, and that is the imported Low Sulphur Gasoil/Diesel.[143]

Monthly Pricing Cycle Trend (in ZMW)

Date Revised	Petrol	Low Sulphur Diesel	Source		Date Revised	Petrol	Low Sulphur Diesel	Source
16 December 2021	21.16*	22.29*	[142]		31 December 2022	24.49	26.44	[144]
31 January 2022	19.84	18.93	[145]		31 January 2023	27.22	29.25	[146]
28 February 2022	21.96	21.54	[147]		1 March 2023	28.52	29.25	[148]
31 March 2022	26.50	26.22	[149]		31 March 2023	27.59	26.28	[150]
30 April 2022	24.15	25.64	[151]		30 April 2022	27.59	24.64	[150]
31 May 2022	24.95	25.64	[152]		31 May 2023	24.45	21.87	[153]
30 June 2022	26.75	28.01	[154]		30 June 2023	24.93	21.87	[155]
31 July 2022	23.19	24.87	[156]		31 July 2023	25.57	23.36	[157]
31 August 2022	21.54	23.12	[158]		31 August 2023	29.42	26.88	[159]
30 September 2022	22.74	26.16	[160]**		30 September 2023	29.98	29.96	[161]
31 October 2022	24.31	27.38	[162]
1 December 2022	25.89	27.38	[163]

*Final rate on quarterly price cycle.

**Excise Duty and VAT Restored.

Bulk Fuel Depots in Zambia are listed below:

See also: Tazama Pipeline, Indeni Petroleum Refinery and Lobito–Lusaka Oil Products Pipeline.[180]

In January 2023, Zambia announced plans to acquire a stake in its neighbor Angola's Lobito Oil Refinery located in Benguela Province along the Atlantic Coast. The Lobito refinery, that is set to be completed in 2026, will have the capacity to produce 200,000 barrels per day. Under the current proposal, private investors, including Zambia, will own 70% shares in the refinery, while Angola's state oil firm, Sonangol Group, will hold 30% ownership.[181]

In September 2023, TAZAMA began constructing a 3km pipeline to tie the Tazama Pipeline to the 6.5 million litre Mpika fuel storage depot at a cost of ZMW 31.26 million kwacha (US$ 1.5 million).[182]When commissioned the pipeline is planned to divert a portion of the low sulfur diesel imported via the pipeline to the storage depot to service the Northern circuit of Zambia with long term benefits of lower fuel costs in the region.[182] This tie-in pipeline is the first of a planned network of distribution pipelines to the other fuel storage depots in Zambia.[182]

Zambia's tourism revenue has been generally raised from local and international tourists visiting the Victoria Falls in Livingstone, and its associated attractions such as the Livingstone Museum and the Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park. In July 2020, the Livingstone Tourism Association reported that during the Heroes and Unity holidays the holiday site received a record number of visitors.[183] Celebrities such as Will Smith and some Entrepreneur[184] have visited the tourist site with the latter celebrating her £3 million nuptials in a picturesque ceremony at The Royal Livingstone Hotel by the banks of the Zambezi River.[185][186]

To advance home grown tourism, in March 2021, African Eagle Hotels, a multi-national company, stated that a 2 Star and 5 Star Hotel each costing U$20 million and U$30 million would be constructed and opened at the Kasaba Bay Resort located in the Nsumbu National Park and open by 2023.[187] In October 2021, through its national budget, the government also allocated ZMW 150 million (U$8.6 million) to further the development of Kasaba Bay, to spur tourism in the Northern Circuit of Zambia.[188]

Tourism Statistics 1995–2020[189][190][99]

Year	Number of Tourists	% Growth of Tourists	Receipts ('000 US$)	% of GNP
1995	163,000		--	--
1996	264,000	62.0%	--	--
1997	341,000	29.2%	29,000	0.67%
1998	362,000	6.2%	40,000	1.1%
1999	404,000	11.6%	53,000	1.6%
2000	457,000	13.1%	67,000	1.9%
2001	492,000	7.6%	80,000	2.0%
2002	565,000	14.8%	64,000	1.5%
2003	413,000	-26.9%	88,000	1.8%
2004	515,000	24.7%	92,000	1.5%
2005	669,000	29.9%	447,000	5.4%
2006	757,000	13.2%	506,000	4.0%
2007	897,000	18.5%	599,000	4.3%
2008	812,000	-9.5%	542,000	3.0%
2009	710,000	-12.6%	474,000	3.1%
2010	815,000	14.8%	492,000	2.4%
2011	920,000	12.9%	555,000	2.4%
2012	859,000	-6.6%	518,000	2.0%
2013	915,000	6.5%	552,000	2.0%
2014	947,000	3.5%	642,000	2.4%
2015	932,000	-1.6%	660,000	3.1%
2016	956,000	2.6%	683,000	3.3%
2017	1,010,000	5.6%	653,000	2.5%
2018	1,070,000	5.9%	742,000	2.8%
2019	1,270,000	18.7%	820,000	3.5%
2020	502,000	-60.5%	N/A	N/A
2021	554,200	-0.4%	N/A	N/A
2022	1,060,788	91.4%	N/A	N/A

Manufacturing GDP at Current Prices (ZMW' million) 2020 Q1- 2023 Q2[191]

Quarter	Q1	Q2	Q3	Q4
2020	5,293	5,556	7,179	7,605
2021	9,200	11,654	10,717	10,211
2022	10,677	9,463	9,600	11,019
2023	10,814	9,918

Below is a table for the Composite Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) Manufacturing Pulse in Zambia. 50 sets the benchmark, for expansion ->50 and expansion -<50.

Composite Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI)

Month / Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Source
2021	47.70	47.10	49.70	50.10	49.70	49.30	49.80	49.80	50.30	51.20	51.80	51.50	[211][212][213][214]
2022	49.90	50.30	49.60	50.50	49.80	49.90	50.50	50.00	50.50	49.00	49.10	48.30	[215][216][217][218][219][220][221]
2023	50.60	51.30	46.90	48.70	51.40	51.20	51.00	49.20	48.10				[222][223][224][225][226][227][228][229][230]

Annual Cement Production[99]

Year	Production (MT)
2020	2,127,832
2021	2,732,013
2022	2,369,193

As of 2022, Zambia runs a free education policy at public early childhood and secondary schools.[231]

• Education in Zambia
• List of schools in Zambia
• List of universities in Zambia

• Central Bank: Bank of Zambia (BOZ)
• List of banks in Zambia

Monetary Policy[232][233](Tightening: Red. Easing: Green)

Date	Policy Rate	Monetary Policy Committee Statement
5 November 2015	15.50%	Policy Rate adjusted upward by 300 basis points to 15.50%
19 February 2016	15.50%	Policy Rate maintained at 15.50%
20 May 2016	15.50%	Policy Rate maintained at 15.50%
19 August 2016	15.50%	Policy Rate maintained at 15.50%
16 November 2016	15.50%	Policy Rate maintained at 15.50%
22 February 2017	14.00%	Policy Rate Reduced by 150 basis points 14.00%, the Overnight Lending Facility (PLF) Rate reduced to 600 basis points above the Policy Rate, and the Statutory Reserve Ratio reduced by 250 basis points to 15.50%
17 May 2017	12.50%	Policy Rate Reduced by 150 basis points 12.50%
10 August 2017	11.00%	Policy Rate lowered to 11.00% and Statutory Reserve Ratio reduced to 9.50%
22 November 2017	10.25%	Policy Rate lowered to 10.25% and Statutory Reserve Ratio reduced to 8.00%
16 February 2018	9.75%	Policy Rate cut by 50 Basis Points to 9.75%
16 May 2018	9.75%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.75%
22 August 2018	9.75%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.75%
21 November 2018	9.75%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.75%
20 February 2019	9.75%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.75%
22 May 2019	10.25%	Policy Rate adjusted upwards by 50 basis points to 10.25%
21 August 2019	10.25%	Policy Rate maintained at 10.25%
20 November 2019	11.50%	Policy Rate adjusted upward by 125 basis points to 11.50%
19 February 2020	11.50%	Policy Rate maintained at 11.25%
20 May 2020	9.25%	Policy Rate cut by 225 Basis Points to 9.25%
19 August 2020	8.00%	Policy Rate cut by a further 125 Basis Points to 8.00%
18 November 2020	8.00%	Policy Rate held at 8.0%
17 February 2021	8.50%	Policy Rate adjusted upwards by 50 basis points to 8.50%
19 May 2021	8.50%	Policy Rate held at 8.50%
1 September 2021	8.50%	Policy Rate held at 8.50%
24 November 2021	9.00%	Policy Rate adjusted upwards by 50 basis points to 9.00%
17 February 2022	9.00%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.00%
18 May 2022	9.00%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.00%[233]
17 August 2022	9.00%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.00%[234][235]
23 November 2022	9.00%	Policy Rate maintained at 9.00%
15 February 2023	9.25%	Policy Rate adjusted upwards by 25 basis points to 9.25%[236] On 2 February the Statutory Reserve Ratiowas increased to 11.50% from 9.00%[237]
17 May 2023	9.50%	Policy Rate adjusted upwards by 25 basis points to 9.50%[238]
23 August 2023	10.00%	Policy Rate adjusted upwards by 50 basis points to 10.00%[239]

BOZ purchases gold locally from Kansanshi Copper Mine and the Zambia Gold Company for its reserves.[240]

Commercial Banks’ Average Lending Rates

Year	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022
Rate	29.20%	24.90%	23.60%	25.63%	26.57%	25.90%	25.22%
Source	[244]	[245]	[245]	[246]	[246]	[247]	[248]

• Mass media in Zambia

As Zambia continued on its path to diversifying from dependence on Copper with an emphasis on growth in agriculture, in April 2022, the country's Ministry of Agriculture through the Plant Quarantine and Phytosanitary Service (PQPS) approved the first consignment of over 37 metric tons of Zambian grown avocados for export to countries in the European Union.[249]

In 2005, the Japanese Government through Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA) aided the Zambia government to introduce the Multi- Facility Economic Zone (MFEZ) programme.[250] The aim is to  create a platform for Zambia to achieve economic development by attracting significant domestic and foreign direct investment (FDI) through a strengthened policy and legislative environment.[250] The MFEZs are, special industrial zones for both export-oriented and domestic-oriented industries. The zones are expected to have well appointed infrastructure in place in order to attract and facilitate establishment of world-class enterprises in the zone (s).[250]

Among the MFEZ investment incentives offered for companies operating under the MFEZ/Priority Sector include:

Currently there are numerous MFEZs in Zambia:[250][252]

Established in June 2012, the zone prioritizes agribusiness, packaging and printing, palm oil processing, pulp and packaging boards, pharmaceuticals, electrical and electronic appliances, ICTs, education and skills training, R&D, professional, medical, scientific and measuring services.[250]

In 2020, the LS-MFEZ realised US$100.6 million worth of investments bringing the accumulated investments to about US$567.6 million and generating about 7,100 jobs since commencing operations in 2012.[253]

In 2021, the LS-MFEZ realised a record US$309.4 million worth of investments bringing the accumulated investments to about US$877.4 million with permanent jobs at about 9,360 and total jobs including construction workers at 11,560.[254][255]

This zone is also known as the Zambia-China Economic & Trade Cooperation Zone (ZCCZ).[250]

The zone prioritizes agriculture (circular and tourism agricultures), agro-processing, brewery, pharmaceuticals, building materials, logistics (storage) and international commerce.[250]

Launched in 2011, is expected to generate more than 4,000 permanent jobs once fully developed and is focused on real estate and residential developments.[256]

Opened in 2007, prioritizes mining, engineering equipment assembly, construction materials, fertilizers, agriculture, and service sectors such as banking and hospitals.[250]

By 2016, the CMFEZ had already received investment of about US$800 million from 14 enterprises.[257]

In 2016, the government launched the development of the Chembe Multi-Facility Economic Zone in Chembe, Luapula Province.[252]

Located in Chibombo District, Central Province, Zambia, the ground breaking for this zone was held in November 2018 and is also known as the Jiangxi Multi-Facility Economic Zone.[254]

In October 2021, the Chibombo MFEZ signed six project agreements worth US$160 million projected to create over 1,000 jobs.[258]

In November 2009, the government of Zambia announced a plan for a US$1.2 billion investment into the declared Lumwana Multi-Facility Economic Zone.[259]

This Multi-Facility Economic Zone (MFEZ) is located in Ndola, Copperbelt Province.[260][261]

By October 2011, over US$10 million had been invested in the infrastructure in the MFEZ.[262]

Located in North-Western Province, this MFEZ received approval by the Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry in September 2022.[263][264]

The expected initial investment was approximately US$100 million.[263][264]

The facility was intended to offer local vendors an industrial base to set up a local supply chain for the growing Kalumbila copper mine, upcoming Enterprise nickel mine, and other businesses around the First Quantum Minerals (FQM) sites.[263][264]

Zambia has a relatively quiet startup and venture capital space; however, the trend seems to be shifting as in August 2021 fintech company Union54 led the way by being the first Zambian startup accepted into Y Combinator's summer batch of YC 2021.[267][268] In October 2021, American investment firm Tiger Global led a U$3 million seed round in Union54.[269] And in April 2022, the Zambian company raised an additional U$12 million in a seed extension round also led by Tiger Global.[270]

Standard economic theory and empirical data indicates that second-hand clothing import can have positive effects in a country like Zambia (one of the least developed countries in the world). The salaula market reduces the proportion of income that a family has to spend on clothing. It also helps to keep employments like repairs and alterations in business and forces tailors to proceed into more specialize production of styled garments.[271]

There is a downside to such imports, however; the massive importation of used clothing from the developed world has resulted in a near-total collapse of the Zambian indigenous textile industry. In the face of cheap used clothing, tailors' specialized production may be irrelevant - customers will buy the least expensive clothing available, irrespective of style. Those who might otherwise work at textile mills or clothing factories are left jobless, or else make significantly less money in the salaula resale business.

Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), two countries, that have more than 70% of the world's Cobalt reserves and an abundance of Copper, Nickel and Manganese have resolved to set up a Zambia-DRC-Executive Battery Council to oversee the implementation of the cooperating agreement for the electric vehicle battery value chain. The Executive Council's executive committee will be composed of President Hakainde Hichilema, his DRC counterpart Felix Tshisekedi, the Deputy Secretary General of the African Economic Community for the United Nations, as well as the President of AFREXIM Bank, as a financial partner. Also issued was a communiqué by the two heads of state that indicated that the two countries will also harmonize policies for the initiative. Zambia and the DRC signed the MOU in Lusaka Zambia on 29 April 2022.[272][273][274][275]

In July 2022, the African Export-Import Bank President Benedict Oramah, whilst in Lusaka Zambia, announced that a pool of investors had earmarked more than US$500.0 million to set up an industrial park for the purposes of adding value to the copper, cobalt, and manganese mined in Zambia. The investors will set up plants to process cobalt, copper, and lithium that are in Zambia and neighboring countries and establish a US$250 million Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) manufacturing plant.[78]

In July 2022, at the 94th Agricultural and Commercial Show in Lusaka, the managing director of the National Utility ZESCO, Victor Mapani announced that the company plans to deploy Electric Vehicle EV charging stations across the country in an effort to accelerate and promote the transition to EVs and enhance carbon emission reduction.[276]

In December 2022, on the sidelines of the ongoing US-Africa summit in Washington DC, Zambia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the United States of America signed an MOU toward the actualization of the electric vehicle battery value chain. Different US institutions and agencies such as USAID, the US Department of Commerce, the Trade and Development Agency, are exploring technical assistance for the Zambia-DRC EV supply chain. Additionally, the Export-Import Bank of the United States, the Development Finance Corporation, will be exploring financing and support mechanisms for investment in African electric vehicle value chains.[277]

In April 2023, The African Export-Import Bank (Afreximbank) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) signed a framework agreement with Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo for the establishment of special economic zones for the production of electric vehicles and batteries.[278] Afreximbank and ECA will lead the establishment of an operating company in consortium with public and private investors and Afreximbank's impact fund subsidiary, the Fund for Export Development in Africa. The new company will develop special economic zones (SEZs) dedicated to the production of battery precursors, batteries, and electric vehicles, in both nations.[279]

In October 2023, the Chinese company Better Technology Group announced that procurement of electric vehicle battery, energy storage battery and Uninterruptiple Supply battery manufacturing equipment was under underway and will be delivered in Zambia by December 2023.[280] This equipment will be part of the EV battery manufacturing facility to be set up in Zambia's Chibomba- Jiangxi Multi Facility Economic Zone in Central Province with construction set to be completed by March 2024.[280] The Group President also announced that the company has budgeted to invest ZMW 2.18 billion kwacha (US$ 100 million) in the Venture through 2026.[280]

In June 2023, a license to offer internet services in Zambia was granted to Elon Musk's Starlink by the Zambian Government through the Electronic Government Division – SMART Zambia, following the completion of many prosperous trial projects throughout the nation.[281][282][283]