Moccasin Bluff site

There were no trace of dwellings found at the site. Nor were there post molds that might have indicated the presence of structures. The researchers concluded that the lack of structural features may be due to the fact that the main part of the site was destroyed during the construction of the Red Bud Trail Highway.[3]

Four feature types were identified; storage pits (62), fire pits (17), hearths (19) and smudge pits (2). Three burials were located, of which only one was fully excavated.[3]

The fire pits may have functioned as earth ovens for the roasting of the white water lily tuber.[3] No trace of the tubers were found at the site, but in similar pits at the Griesmer site in northwest Indiana the carbonized remains of white water lily tuber were identified;[6] and at the Schwerdt site on the Kalamazoo River in Michigan, the carbonized tubers of a similar water-lily species, American Lotus, were found in deep roasting pits.[7]

Both smudge pits contained the carbonized remains of maize. The contents were analyzed and it was determined to be Eastern Complex maize. Based on previous ethnographic observation, the researchers concluded the features were used as a smudge to cure hides.[3]

The remains of 32 species were present at Moccasin Bluff. However when the remains were analyzed to assign pounds of meat present of each species, the results were 32% deer, 27% elk, 8% sturgeon, 6% beaver, 5% bear and 2% dog.[8] These bones were not modified into tools like the bone tools described in the Artifacts section below, and may be considered food remains or, in the case of the dog and bear, possibly the remains of ceremonial activities. Dog sacrifice and dog meat consumption was observed to have ceremonial and religious implications in early Native American tribes. Bear worship and ceremonialism has also been recorded in the ethnological record.[9][3]

Charred 8-rowed maize cobs from one of the smudge pits

Specimens of wood charcoal from the fire pits were analyzed and found to be primarily oak, hickory and maple, reflecting the makeup of the local deciduous forest. Some carbonized food remains were identified as acorn, walnut, Canadian plum, butternut and hickory nut. Eastern complex maize was present in the two smudge pits.[3]

The following types of artifacts were recovered from the site:[3]

• Pottery - No whole or completely reconstructable vessels were found at the site. Therefore the researchers looked primarily at rim sherds and distinctive body sherds to analyze the pottery. The site yielded 534 analyzable rim sherds representing at least 424 vessels. These artifacts are discussed in more detail below.
• Stone Tools - 1,519 stone tools, tool fragments and flakes.[3] Also present were hammer and anvil stones, celts, and abraiding stones.
• Bone tools - present were bone cylinders, beaming tools, antler tools, bone awls, elk scapula tools and turtle carapaces. A bone rasp (musical instrument) fragment was present in the Birdsell collection, a group of artifacts from the site donated by a local collector.
• Stone Pendants - 2 pieces of stone were recovered with holes punched in the middle and were interpreted as pendants.
• Pipes - 6 pipe fragments or unfinished pipe bowls made out of clay or stone.
• Red Ochre - 7 pieces of red ochre were in the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology collection from the site.

The non-pottery artifacts found at an archaeological site can provide useful cultural context as well as a glimpse into the domestic tasks performed at a site; ceremonial or religious activities; recreational activities; and clothing or personal adornment.

Some of the most prominent and diagnostic non-pottery artifacts are presented here in more detail:[3]

Material	Description	Image	Qty	Function / use	Comments / associations
Chipped stone	Small Triangular points (aka Madison points)		104 (representing 44% of all chipped stone tools)	Hunting/fishing/warfare	Also known as “arrowheads”; are thought to be arrow-tips for bows-and-arrows. The usage of the bow-and-arrow seems to have greatly increased during the Late Woodland, probably as a result of increased conflict.[10][11] Since there is a large quantity of sturgeon bone at Moccasin Bluff, it is strongly probable that these tools were used in fishing activities.
Chipped stone	Ovate or double pointed blades/knives		3	Domestic function / cutting applications	Some show signs of hafting. Typical of Upper Mississippian sites, particularly Huber and Oneota (Orr focus)
Chipped stone	Bifacially flaked end scraper		22	Domestic function / processing wood or hides	Common at Oneota sites, but usually unifacially flaked rather than bifacial
Chipped stone	Drills		6	Domestic function / processing wood or hides	3 types are present; double pointed and expanded base, which are both common types; and T-shaped (pictured) which is usually found on Fort Ancient sites
Chipped stone	Thick "steep-edge" blades/scrapers		53	Domestic function / woodworking	Reported from Fisher–Huber sites in Illinois
Stone	Abraiding stone		1	Domestic function / straightening arrow shafts	Considered a typical Upper Mississippian trait[6][12][13]
Antler	Spatula pieces of antler; chisel/gouge/scraper		5	Domestic function / specific use unknown	Made from elk antler. Not common on sites nearby Moccasin Bluff; has been reported on Whittlesey sites in northern Ohio
Bone	Perforated deer bone (hole punched in the middle)		1	Possibly personal adornment function / pendant	This type of artifact has been reported from the Fisher site and several Fort Ancient sites
Bone	Elk scapula hoes		3	Domestic function / Agricultural-horticultural or general digging tool	Common at Huber and Oneota sites; sometimes this tool is made with bison scapula, especially westward toward and west of the Mississippi River; they may have been used to dig out the pit features present at Moccasin Bluff.
Bone	unmodified turtle carapace, Common Box Turtle, possibly used as bowl		2	Domestic function / could have been used as tobacco tray, serving bowl for food, or general food container	The use of a turtle carapace as a tobacco tray has been documented among historic Central Angonkian tribes
Bone	Bone rasp (musical instrument) fragment		1	Ceremonial–recreational function / entertainment or use at ceremony	Also found at Huber, Whittlesey and Fort Ancient sites
Bone	Grooved bone		1	Unknown function	Not common from sites in the area of Moccasin Bluff; reported from the South Park site in northern Ohio and the Walker-Hooper Site in Wisconsin
Bone	unmodified deer mandibles		"unusually large numbers" according to the site report	Domestic function / used for scraping maize kernels off the cobs	The site report does not state there is any wear on the bones to indicate their usage as a tool; but their presence in large numbers strongly implies it. At other sites they are an indicator of the presence of maize agriculture.
Stone	Pipe bowl fragments; stemless, vase- or bowl-shaped pipe		2	Ceremonial–recreational function / pipe smoking	It has been documented among historic tribes that stemless pipes were used for recreational smoking; ceremonial pipes were stemmed
Stone	Unfinished pipe bowl fragments; stemless, block type		2	Ceremonial–recreational function / pipe smoking	Block style pipes are known from Whittlesey and Fort Ancient sites in Ohio
Clay	Pipe fragments; modified tube-shaped		2	Ceremonial–recreational function / pipe smoking	This type is known from sites in Wisconsin

Archaeologists often find pottery to be a very useful tool in analyzing a prehistoric culture. It is usually very plentiful at a site and the details of manufacture and decoration are very sensitive indicators of time, space and culture.

A total of 20 vessels of Havana Ware pottery was collected in the 1948 excavations.[3] The Havana Culture was thought to be a local variant of the main Middle Woodland, which was dominated by the Adena and Hopewell cultures of the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys.[10] Middle Woodland cultures are characterized by their large burial mounds, some of which are still visible today; as well as their distinctive pottery forms, ceremonial practices, agricultural activities, and widespread trade networks.[10][11]

The Late Woodland period in the Great Lakes region was characterized by the introduction of maize agriculture, which allowed for more efficient food production. This led to population increases which in turn led to increased competition for resources, resulting in more conflict/warfare. After 1000 AD, there was increased interaction and influence from the Mississippian cultures of the Mississippi River Valley, resulting in the formation of Upper Mississippian cultures in the Great Lakes area.[10]

Based on analysis of the Late Woodland / Upper Mississippian pottery collected in the 1948 excavations, 2 distinct types of pottery wares were defined: Late Woodland grit-tempered Moccasin Bluff Ware (327 vessels) and Upper Mississippian shell-tempered Berrien Ware (48 vessels).[3]

Moccasin Bluff impressed exterior lip rim sherd

Partially reconstructed vessel of Moccasin Bluff notched applique strip

Partially reconstructed vessel of Moccasin Bluff plain modified lip

Moccasin Bluff ware is divided into several types, some of which have variants, groups and sub-groups:[3]

• Moccasin Bluff cordmarked (97 vessels), characterized by cord marked surface treatment, subdivided into two varieties, Variety 1a and Variety 1b. Variety 1b is further subdivided into 6 sub-groups.[3] Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
• Moccasin Bluff collared (14 vessels), characterized by collared or thickened and sometimes castellated rims, subdivided into 2 subgroups.[3] Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
• Moccasin Bluff modified lip (57 vessels), characterized by distinctive rim and lip treatments, divided into 6 sub-groups.[3] Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
• Moccasin Bluff impressed exterior lip (56 vessels), characterized by distinctive rim and lip treatments, divided into 2 sub-groups.[3] Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
• Moccasin Bluff plain (37 vessels), characterized by a distinctive plain smoothed surface.[3] Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
• Moccasin Bluff plain modified lip (36 vessels), characterized by distinctive notches or finger impressions on the rim, combined with a plain smoothed exterior surface, subdivided into 3 sub-groups. Similar pottery has been found at the Dumaw Creek, Summer Island and Rock Island II sites. Dumaw Creek and Summer Island have been mentioned as possible prehistoric Potawatomi sites, and at Rock Island II, the pottery type Bell Type II has been demonstrated to be a Potawatomi pottery type.[3][14][15][16] Time period: Late prehistoric to Protohistoric or early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland. Protohistoric/Historic Cultural affiliation: unknown, possibly Potawatomi.
• Moccasin Bluff notched applique strip (20 vessels), characterized by the thickening of the rim by use of an appliqué strip, upon which various design motifs are applied.[3] Time period: Late prehistoric to Protohistoric or early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland. Protohistoric/Historic Cultural affiliation: unknown.
• Moccasin Bluff scalloped (10 vessels), characterized by scalloped treatment of the rim edge.[3] Pottery of this type has been recovered from the Dumaw Creek and Schwerdt sites, as well as other west Michigan sites, where it is suggested it may have been made by the Potawatomi.[14][7] Time period: Late prehistoric to Protohistoric or early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland. Protohistoric/Historic Cultural affiliation: unknown, possibly Potawatomi.

Berrien ware pottery, groups 2 and 3

Berrien ware pottery, group 4

The shell-tempered Berrien ware present at the site is divided into 5 subgroups based on shoulder, neck, surface finish and rim and lip attributes, and can be typed according to 2 previously recognized Upper Mississippian cultures:

• Berrien ware subgroups 1, 2 and 3 - The first 3 subgroups have been equated with Huber ware, and are differentiated by shoulder and neck attributes. Overall the Huber Ware is characterized by shell-tempered smooth surface pottery which is either undecorated or decorated with incised or trailed lines on the shoulder area. The Huber cultural area is centered on the Chicago area and has been recognized as closely related to the Oneota Aspect in Wisconsin and surrounding states.[10] It is dated to the late prehistoric to the Early Historic or Protohistoric period, as it has been found in association with European trade goods in some sites (c. A.D. 1400-A.D. 1650, or until European contact).[3][17][18] The historic culture behind the Huber pottery is not known for certain, but the Miami tribe were observed by early French explorers to occupy the area around the southern shore of Lake Michigan during the Protohistoric to early Historic Period.[3] Miniature vessels have also been found within the Huber component at Moccasin Bluff. These are common at other sites in the area and could be interpreted as “toy” pots or attempts by young children to practice making pottery.[3] Time period: Late prehistoric to Protohistoric or early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian Huber. Protohistoric/Historic Cultural affiliation: unknown, possibly Miami.
• Berrien ware subgroups 4 and 5 - these subgroups have been equated with Fisher ware, which was first described at the Fisher Mound site in northeastern Illinois near the mouth of the Illinois River.[19] Like Huber, Fisher is also closely related to the Oneota Aspect.[3][10] Fisher pottery is characterized by shell tempering, predominantly cordmarked surfaces, trailed or incised decoration and straight, excurved or flaring rims. Notched lips and rim lugs are also common. Fisher and Huber seem to overlap spacially, as both cultures have been noted in the Chicago and northwest Indiana regions, sometimes at the same site. The Fisher pottery at Moccasin Bluff is similar to the types Fifield trailed and Fifield bold, defined at the Fifield site, a Fisher village site in northwestern Indiana.[6] Unlike the Huber Ware, Fisher has never been found associated with Protohistoric or early Historic Period sites and is therefore thought to be slightly older than Huber.[3] Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian Fisher.

The large quantity of pottery collected at the Moccasin Bluff site, in conjunction with comparisons with other sites, enabled the authors of the site report to propose a chronological history of Late Woodland cultures in the western Michigan / northwest Indiana region.[3]

The Berrien phase terminates with the end of prehistory and the beginning of the historic period. The authors of the site report hypothesize that Berrien–Huber ware may be associated with the historic Miami tribe; the Moccasin Bluff Scalloped with an Algonquian-speaking tribe such as the Potawatomi; and the Moccasin Bluff Notched Applique Strip with Ohio tribes who may have been displaced during the Iroquois Wars.[3] Based on the fact that Michigan was traditionally considered the homeland of the Potawatomi, other researchers have also suggested that the Berrien Phase represents the material culture of the Potawatomi tribe.[20]

Notably, there are no European trade goods present in the Berrien phase at Moccasin Bluff. Therefore the site was abandoned at or just before the time of European contact.[3] The same may be said for the Berrien Phase component at the nearby Schwerdt site.[7] The reason for this may be that in the Protohistoric or early Historic period the Potawatomi were displaced from western Michigan as a result of the Iroquois Wars and moved to the west shore of Lake Michigan into Wisconsin.[20] The Rock Island II Site on Rock Island in Green Bay, northern Lake Michigan in Wisconsin is a good example of a Potawatomi village in this early Historic period.[16] As a result, the lower peninsula of Michigan became a "no-mans land", mostly unoccupied for several decades.[20]