Yam languages
The Yam languages, also known as the Morehead River languages, are a family of Papuan languages. They include many of the languages south and west of the Fly River in Papua New Guinea and Indonesian West Papua.
| Yam | |
|---|---|
| Morehead River | |
| Geographic distribution | Morehead River watershed, New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | A primary language family
|
| Subdivisions | |
| Glottolog | more1255 |
 Map: The Yam languages of New Guinea
Yam languages
Trans–New Guinea languages
Other Papuan languages
Austronesian languages
Australian languages
Uninhabited | |
Name
The names Morehead and Upper Maro River or Morehead-Maro refer to the area around the Morehead and Maro rivers. Most of the languages are found between these rivers, but the Nambu subgroup are spoken east of the Morehead. Evans (2012) refers to the family instead with the more compact name Yam. This name is motivated by a number of linguistic and cultural items of significance: yam (and cognates) means "custom, tradition"; yəm (and cognates) means "is"; and yam tubers are the local staple and of central cultural importance.
External relationships
Ross (2005) tentatively includes the Yam languages in the proposed Trans-Fly – Bulaka River family. More recently (Evans 2012) has argued that this is not justified and more data has to be gathered. Evans (2018) classifies the Pahoturi River languages as an independent language family.[1]
Yam languages have also been in intensive contact with Marind and Suki speakers, who had historically expanded into Yam-speaking territories via headhunting raids and other expansionary migrations.[1]
Classification
Internal classification of the Yam languages:[2]
- Yei
- Tonda languages (a dialect chain)
- Nambu languages (a dialect chain)
Wichmann (2013) did not find a connection between the branches in his automated comparison.[3]
Languages
Yam languages are spoken by up to 3,000 people on both sides of the border in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. In Papua New Guinea, Yam languages are spoken in Morehead Rural LLG, Western Province. In Papua, Indonesia, Yam languages are spoken in Merauke Regency.[1]
Yam languages and respective demographic information listed by Evans (2018) are provided below.[1] Geographical coordinates are also provided for some villages.[4]
List of Yam languages Language Alternative names Subgroup Speakers Villages or hamlets Anta Tokwe, Upper Morehead, Thamnga Tonda 150 Ufarua (8.635484°S 141.633236°E), Forzitho, Thamgakar (8.626232°S 141.611057°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Komnzo Kamundjo, Upper Morehead, (Mema, Ranzér), Zókwasi, Farem Tonda 200 Rouku (8.701793°S 141.598485°E), Gunana, Morehead (8.708915°S 141.634593°E), Firra, Masu, Kanathér in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Wára Tjokwe, Upper Morehead, Wära, Mät Tonda 350 Yokwa (8.700472°S 141.523053°E), (Mäwsa, Kwaikér, Zäzér Ménz) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Wérè Tokwe, Upper Morehead, Wórä Tonda 100 Tokwa (8.643291°S 141.436129°E), Kanfok in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Kémä Upper Morehead Tonda 130 Wämnefér (8.74137°S 141.415826°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Kánchá Kunja, Lower Morehead, Peremka, Kénzä Tonda 350* Bondobol (8.929521°S 141.338469°E), Bula (9.128337°S 141.340513°E), Jarai (9.196839°S 141.584426°E) in southeast Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Ránmo Tonda, Renmo, Blafe Tonda 200* Yéndorodoro (8.59196°S 141.29677°E), Mengete (8.657045°S 141.284029°E) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Mblafe Blafe, Blafe Wonana, Tonda Tonda 350* Weam (8.618919°S 141.134728°E), Kandarisa (8.621418°S 141.2194°E), Wereaver (8.596603°S 141.123567°E) (only recently in Wereaver) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Warta Thuntai Guntai, Kan Tonda 430 Wando (8.885893°S 141.258528°E), Bensbach (8.8493°S 141.249855°E), Balamuk, Korombo 1, Korombo 2 (8.754213°S 141.265672°E) in mid southwest Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Arammba None Tonda 750 Fwasam, Gowi, Kiriwa (8.437511°S 141.515843°E), Meru (8.471963°S 141.466349°E), Sedefi (8.514592°S 141.610694°E), Serki (8.250688°S 141.766022°E) in north central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Nggarna Ngar, Kanum, Sota Tonda unknown Vicinity of Sota in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Rema Tonda 10? (moribund or extinct) Wereaver (8.596603°S 141.123567°E) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Smerki Smärki, Kanum, Barkari Tonda 150 Rawu Biru, Tomer, Tomerau, Yakiw in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia Tamer Smerki, Smärki, Kanum Tonda 120 Yanggandur (recently moved there) in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia Ngkontar Ngkontar, Ngkolmpu Tonda 100 Yanggandur in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG Ngkolmpu Kiki, Ngkntra Kiki, Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne Tonda east Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG Bedi Ngkolmpu Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne Tonda 5 (moribund or extinct) Onggaya in south central Merauke Regency, Indonesia Yei Yei 1278 Po, Torai, Bupul, Tanas, Kwel in east Merauke Regency, Indonesia Nen Nambu 350 Bimadeben (8.701793°S 141.598485°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Nama Nambu 1200 Daraia (8.61637°S 141.733576°E), Mata (8.674546°S 141.743133°E), Ngaraita (8.599511°S 141.714869°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Namat Mibini Nambu 170* Mibini (8.838849°S 141.637931°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Nambo Nmbo, Keraki; Namna, Yarne Nambu 710 Nambo variety: Gubam (8.619428°S 141.922509°E), Bebdeben (8.667668°S 141.925772°E), Arufi (8.760576°S 141.913707°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; Namna variety: Pongarki (8.664295°S 141.827064°E), Derideri (8.686837°S 141.85624°E) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Neme Nambu 200 Keru (8.483752°S 141.788348°E), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Dre Ndre Nambu 1 Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Namo Nä Nambu 374* Tais (9.167526°S 141.905733°E), Mari (9.193532°S 141.70247°E) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG Len Lä Nambu 8–10 Now living in Tais (9.167526°S 141.905733°E), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
See also: Districts of Papua (Indonesian Wikipedia)
Pronouns
The pronouns Ross (2005) reconstructs for the family are,
- Proto-Yam (Proto–Morehead – Upper Maro)
I/we *ni you *bu s/he/they *be
Typology
Many Yam languages display vowel harmony, including in Nambu and Tonda languages.[1]
Vocabulary comparison
Basic vocabulary
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970)[5] and Voorhoeve (1975),[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:[7]
gloss Kanum Yei head mel kilpel hair mel-kata peab eye si cur tooth tor ter leg tegu cere louse neːmpin nim dog krar jeu pig kwer becek bird sento yarmaker egg bel mekur blood mbel gul bone mbaːr gor skin keikei paːr tree per per man ire el-lu sun koŋko mir water ataka kao fire mens benj stone melle mejer name iu ore eat anaŋ cenye one namper nampei two yempoka yetapae
Fauna names
Below are some turtle names in Yam languages, along with names in Suki:[8]: 378
Turtle species Arammba (Serki) Neme (Keru) Nama Wat (Daraia) Nama Was (Mibini) Guntai (Wando) Blafe (Wereave) Rema (Metafa) Suki (Suki, Puka-duka) Elseya branderhorsti M’bay Fisor Fisor Fifi Rawk Rawk Sutafnarr Chelba Nthelon Forr Medepka Elseya novaeguineae Fisor Emydura subglobosa Maro Kani Ngani Fisor Mani Fisor Mare Sutafnarr Mare Chelba Ntharase; Mari Nthelon Mari Forr Tegma; i Anki Kan Chelodina parkeri Kunkakta Kunkakta Chelodina rugosa Tomba Kofe Fisor Mbuirr Weya Sutafnarr Mbroyer Fisuwar Tanfer Marr Forr Chelodina novaeguineae Fasar Kani Mboro arr Mbro arr Magipinini Carettochelys insculpta Budu Susa Garr Budu Susa Pelochelys bibroni Sokrere Kiye Eise Emydura sp. aff. worrelli Riskap Kani
All species are consumed by humans except for Chelodina novaeguineae, which is avoided due to its pungent odor. Carettochelys insculpta and Elseya branderhorsti are prized for their large sizes, with E. branderhorsti particularly valued for its plastron.[8]
Further reading
- Carroll, Matthew J., Nicholas Evans, I Wayan Arka, Christian Döhler, Eri Kashima, Volker Gast, Tina Gregor, Julia Miller, Emil Mittag, Bruno Olsson, Dineke Schokkin, Jeff Siegel, Charlotte van Tongeren & Kyla Quinn. 2016. Yamfinder: Southern New Guinea Lexical Database.
- Döhler, Christian (2018) A grammar of Komnzo. (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 22). Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1477799. ISBN 978-3-96110-125-2. Accessed on 2019-11-12.
- Evans, Nicholas, I Wayan Arka, Matthew Carroll, Christian Döhler, Eri Kashima, Emil Mittag, Kyla Quinn, Jeff Siegel, Philip Tama & Charlotte van Tongeren. 2017. The languages of Southern New Guinea. In Bill Palmer (ed.), The languages and linguistics of the New Guinea area, 641–774. Berlin; Boston: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-029525-2. Accessed on 2019-11-12.
- Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
- Greenhill et al., 2008. In: Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
References
- Evans, Nicholas (2018). "The languages of Southern New Guinea". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 641–774. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Morehead River
- Wichmann, Søren. 2013. A classification of Papuan languages. In: Hammarström, Harald and Wilco van den Heuvel (eds.), History, contact and classification of Papuan languages (Language and Linguistics in Melanesia, Special Issue 2012), 313-386. Port Moresby: Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea.
- United Nations in Papua New Guinea (2018). "Papua New Guinea Village Coordinates Lookup". Humanitarian Data Exchange. 1.31.9.
- McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. doi:10.15144/PL-B16
- Voorhoeve, C.L. Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist. Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists. B-31, iv + 133 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. doi:10.15144/PL-B31
- Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
- Georges, A., Guarino, F., & Bito, B. (2006). Freshwater turtles of the TransFly region of Papua New Guinea – notes on diversity, distribution, reproduction, harvest and trade. Wildlife Research, 33(5), 373. doi:10.1071/wr05087
- Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
- Evans, Nicholas (2012). "Even more diverse than we had thought: The multiplicity of Trans-Fly languages". LD&C Special Publication. University of Hawai'i Press. 5: 109–149.
External links
- Yamfinder
- Morehead languages documentation project (DOBES)
- Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, East Morehead River (under construction 2020)
- (ibid.) West Morehead River (under construction 2020)