Osemwende

Oba Osemwende's reign commenced with a civil conflict that emerged following the demise of his father, Oba Obanosa, in 1816. Oba Obanosa did not designate a successor prior to his passing, resulting in a contested and vacant throne.[12] His two sons, Prince Ogbebo and Prince Eredia-uwa, both asserted their right to the throne based on different claims of seniority.[9] Prince Ogbebo contended that his seniority was based on birth order, asserting himself as the eldest son of Oba Obanosa. In contrast, Prince Eredia-uwa asserted his seniority through primogeniture, claiming the right of succession as the firstborn child.[14][9]

The dispute between Prince Ogbebo and Prince Eredia-uwa escalated into a violent conflict, involving not only the two brothers but also their supporters from within the Benin Kingdom.[2] Prince Ogbebo garnered support from his mother and certain influential chiefs, who favoured him for his military capabilities and ambitions. Meanwhile, Prince Eredia-uwa received backing from other influential chiefs who esteemed his wisdom and benevolence.[15] He also secured support from vassal rulers beyond the Benin Kingdom who had received the Chalk of Good Tidings from him upon his return from exile in Ewohimi.[14][9]

The civil conflict persisted for approximately eight months, during which Prince Ogbebo managed to seize power and proclaimed himself as Oba Ogbebo. However, his rule proved brief and unstable, as he encountered resistance and opposition from Prince Eredia-uwa and his allies.[15] The battle occurred at Uzebu, where Prince Eredia-uwa's forces triumphed over those of Oba Ogbebo. Subsequently, Oba Ogbebo was captured and met his demise under the command of Prince Eredia-uwa's general, Ezomo Erebo.[14][9]

Following his victory in the civil conflict, Prince Eredia-uwa assumed the throne of Benin in 1816, adopting the regal title of Oba Osemwende, signifying "the king who brings good tidings."[9] His coronation represented a pivotal moment in the history of the Benin Kingdom, as it marked the restoration of peace and stability following a turbulent succession crisis.[12]

Oba Osemwende adhered to tradition by dispatching the Chalk of Good Tidings to vassal potentates throughout the Benin Empire. This chalk served as an official proclamation of his reign, symbolizing the commencement of his rule.[16] Additionally, it acknowledged the loyalty and assistance of vassal rulers who had supported him in his conflict against Oba Ogbebo. Typically, the chalk was accompanied by offerings of cowries, coral beads, brass rods, and other valuable items.[9]

The coronation of Oba Osemwende was celebrated among his subjects as a divine blessing bestowed by God (Osanobua) and their ancestors (Ebo). He was esteemed as a wise and benevolent ruler, recognized for ushering good tidings, comfort, and joy into his kingdom.[9] His bravery and military prowess were also acknowledged, as he defended his realm against adversaries and insurrections.[9] He received various honorific titles, including Oba n'Edo (the king of Benin), Oba n'Okun (the king of the sea), Oba n'Osa (the king of the sky), Oba n'Ogbe (the king of the earth), among others.[17]

Oba Osemwende's reign witnessed the expansion and consolidation of his empire through military conquests and diplomatic engagements. He pursued a policy aimed at subduing neighboring kingdoms and territories that posed challenges to his authority, while simultaneously nurturing relations with friendly and allied kingdoms that recognized his sovereignty.[15]

Among Oba Osemwende's notable conquests was that of Udo, a town in Esanland that had remained loyal to Oba Ogbebo. The people of Udo asserted their right to choose their ruler independently and contested Oba Osemwende's authority, labeling him a usurper and oppressor.[18]

In response, Oba Osemwende dispatched a substantial army, commanded by his trusted general and adviser, Ezomo Erebo, to quell Udo's resistance and reintegrate it into his dominion.[19] The ensuing battle was intense, resulting in the capture of Udo. The town was subsequently sacked, and many inhabitants either lost their lives or were enslaved. Arakale, the leader of the rebellion, met a similar fate, facing execution alongside his supporters.

This victory over Udo solidified Oba Osemwende's authority, serving as a deterrent to potential rebels who might challenge his rule.[20] He further consolidated his control over Esanland and other regions of his empire by appointing loyal chiefs and administrators to oversee them.[6] Simultaneously, he bolstered diplomatic and military relations with friendly kingdoms such as Oyo, Ife, Nupe, and Jukun.[18][6]

Another significant conquest was that of Akure, a Yoruba town that had maintained a hostile stance towards Benin for an extended period. Akure's people claimed descent from Oranmiyan, Benin's founder, and asserted their superior claim to the throne.[21] They also harbored grievances against Benin's dominance and interference.[22]

In response, Oba Osemwende initiated a military campaign to subdue Akure and bring it under his rule. He entrusted Iyase Erebo, another trusted general and adviser, with leading the army.[23] The conflict was fierce, resulting in Benin's victory, the conquest of Akure, and the town's subsequent plunder, destruction, and loss of life. Deji Aládémọ̀mí, Akure's leader, was captured and executed. This happened in 1818 AD.[22]

Oba Osemwende's conquest of Akure not only enhanced his standing among the Yoruba people but also solidified his authority over Akure and other previously defiant Yoruba towns. He appointed loyal chiefs and administrators to govern them, fostering cooperation. Additionally, he maintained diplomatic ties with other Yoruba kingdoms, including Oyo, Ife, Ijebu, and Egba.[6][24]

The expansion of Oba Osemwende's empire extended beyond these conquests, encompassing regions such as Ekiti, Igbomina, Kwara, Kogi, and Edo North.[25][26] He fortified borders against external threats, including the Fulani jihad, Dahomey wars, and British invasion, constructing forts, walls, moats, roads, bridges, and facilitating trade routes, markets, and ports to enhance commerce and communication across his domains.[26]

Oba Osemwende's reign witnessed a focus on trade and commerce with foreign nations, notably the Portuguese.[27] He established diplomatic and economic ties, facilitating exchanges of various goods, including ivory, pepper, cloth, metalware, firearms, and enslaved individuals, for European commodities such as coral beads, brass rods, cowries, textiles, wine, tobacco, mirrors, and more.[14]

Oba Osemwende recognized the significance of trade with the Portuguese for his kingdom, viewing it as a source of wealth, power, and cultural exchange. Trade was also a means of establishing diplomatic relations with other nations, including Spain, France, and England, who displayed interest in Benin's products and markets.[14]

To facilitate this trade, Oba Osemwende acquainted himself with some Portuguese words and phrases, and incorporated Portuguese interpreters and advisers into his court.[27] Portuguese visitors and emissaries, including Duarte Pacheco Pereira, João de Barros, and Rui de Pina, documented their experiences and observations of Benin. Conversely, Benin dispatched ambassadors and traders to Portugal and other European countries, with Oba Esigie's son, Dom Domingos, visiting Lisbon in 1520.[27]

Oba Osemwende's relationship with the Portuguese was not without challenges, including negotiations, rivalries, and occasional tensions.[27] He vigilantly safeguarded his kingdom's interests and sovereignty, ensuring that it was not unduly influenced or dependent on foreign powers.[28] Despite engaging in trade and diplomacy, he upheld his traditional beliefs and practices, preserving the dignity and prestige of his realm.[14][27]

Oba Osemwende's reign witnessed significant developments in the realms of art and learning among his people.[29] He commissioned a diverse array of artistic works crafted from materials including bronze, ivory, wood, coral, brass, clay, leather, and cloth.[30] These creations, produced by Benin artists, showcased their remarkable skills and creativity.[31] Concurrently, Oba Osemwende encouraged the growth of literature, poetry, music, and dance, enabling the expression of Benin's rich history and culture.[32]

Oba Osemwende held a deep appreciation for art and functioned as a prominent patron. He admired the artistic treasures adorning his palace and city and also collected works of art from other countries such as Portugal, Spain, France, and England.[33] These acquisitions resulted from trade or diplomatic exchanges and were occasionally displayed in public spaces, including temples, shrines, and markets, for the enrichment and edification of his people.[9]

In addition to his patronage of the arts, Oba Osemwende supported the pursuit of knowledge and skills among his children and subjects. His commitment extended to acquiring new knowledge and information from foreign sources, encompassing books, maps, charts, letters, and other materials acquired through trade or diplomatic channels.[9] Oba Osemwende further facilitated the travels of scholars and explorers to distant lands, including Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, India, and China, fostering cross-cultural learning experiences.[31]

Oba Osemwende passed away in 1848, concluding his 32-year rule. His successor, his son Adolor, ascended to the throne as Oba Adolo, reigning from 1848 to 1888.[34] Oba Osemwende received a burial in accordance with the customary rites and rituals of his office, interred in the Royal Cemetery in Benin City. His final resting place was adorned with various works of art, either commissioned or collected during his reign.[35]

Oba Osemwende's death was commemorated by his people, who regarded it as the loss of a significant monarch who had played a pivotal role in their kingdom.[30] His passing found mention in both indigenous and foreign sources, encompassing oral traditions and written accounts.[36] Chroniclers, historians, travellers, traders, missionaries, diplomats, explorers, and others who had interactions with or wrote about his kingdom documented his life and reign.