Spiritual philosophy

Spiritual philosophy is any philosophy or teaching that pertains to spirituality. It may incorporate religious or esoteric themes. It can include any belief or thought system that embraces the existence of a reality that cannot be physically perceived (Britannica 2020). Concepts of spiritual philosophy are not universal and differ depending on one’s religious and cultural backgrounds (Inglehart & Baker 2000). Spiritual philosophy can also be solely based on one’s personal and experiential connections (Miller 2016).

The use of the term ‘spiritual philosophy’ in European culture has its origin in the Catholic concept of living one’s life and practising God’s words through the Holy Spirit. In the 19th century, the concept became more mainstream and evolved to encompass other religions and non-religious relationships with sacred, spiritual and supernatural beliefs.

The notions of spiritual philosophy, for some individuals, diverge from the long-standing history and tradition of institutionalised religion with believers of faith using the practices, beliefs and rituals of their organised religion to connect with their spirituality (Inglehart & Baker 2000). In these instances, the practice of spiritual philosophy centres around the idea of god/gods or the divine (Inglehart & Baker 2000).

However, spiritual philosophy is not always defined by religion (Miller 2016). One’s beliefs in spiritual philosophy can be nontechnical and relate to one’s individual views and beliefs outside religious frameworks, regardless of one’s stance on religion (McDermott 2003).

Whilst the notions of spiritual philosophy are based on widely versed concepts and values (in both religious and non-religious instances), the belief system that influences spiritual philosophy is unique to the individual (McDermott 2003).

Types of spiritual philosophy

Spiritual philosophy can be observed and practiced both intuitively and speculatively.

Intuitive spiritual philosophy

Intuitive spiritual philosophy suggests that there is an intellectual component beyond conscious inclination that fundamentally influences one’s practice of spirituality (Pust 2017) This level of intuitive thinking is influenced by one’s social identities, with priorities being placed on physical intuitions over rational intuitions (Pust 2017).

Speculative spiritual philosophy

Speculative spiritual philosophy focuses on critical reflection on theoretical and personal knowledge to gain understanding and alternative viewpoints of the concepts of spiritual philosophy (Sirswal 2014). The main purpose of speculative spiritual philosophy is to understand the reasoning behind reality through profound experiences (Sirswal 2014).

Spiritual philosophy in Religion

Major world religions which practice spiritual philosophy.

Spiritual philosophy has both religious and non-religious connotations. The spirituality of religious individuals is greatly influenced by their religion’s beliefs, teachings, including sacred texts, and the practice of key rituals (Inglehart & Baker 2000).

Eastern World Religions

Eastern world religions - Hinduism and Buddhism - understand the concepts of spiritual philosophy through the nature of Eastern philosophy (Rousseau 2019). Eastern philosophy relies heavily on the teachings and beliefs of Eastern religions (Burtt 1953). The main concept of Eastern philosophy, contentment in the endless cycle of the universe, forms the basis of adherent’s spiritual philosophy (Burtt 1953).

Buddhism

The teachings and rituals of early Buddhism are some of the earliest forms of spiritual philosophy (Raghuramaraju 2013). Buddhism provides guidance to adherents on what to do and how to live, in accordance with the teachings and practices of Buddhism (Raghuramaraju 2013). The Buddhist faith has maintained a rich tradition and continues to remain relevant in a world that is becoming increasingly modernised (Raghuramaraju 2013), (Goodman 2021).

The central themes that pertain to Buddhist spirituality include the Four Noble Truths, karma, dharma, the lotus sutra and the bodhisattvas (Raghuramaraju 2013), (Zacharias 1951). These themes are paramount to the Buddhist faith and subsequently how adherents perceive reality (Raghuramaraju 2013).

The goal of non-attachment, which includes escaping from the cycle of rebirth and suffering through positive deeds and achieving enlightenment in samsara, is foundational throughout Buddhist spirituality (Raghuramaraju 2013). Buddha’s command to “steer clear of profitless metaphysical discussions” (Raghuramaraju 2013). This provides adherents with a clear understanding of the practice of non-attachment, which in turn is relevant to the practice of spiritual philosophy throughout Buddhism (Raghuramaraju 2013). The promise of obtaining enlightenment in Samsara and escaping the constant torture and suffering of the rebirth cycle, has resulted in adherents’ strict observance of moral disciplines (Goodman 2021). This discipline has resulted in consistent and widespread practice of faith amongst Buddhist adherents, and subsequently the practices of spiritual philosophy relevant to the religion (Goodman 2021).

Hinduism

The origins of spiritual philosophy in Hinduism are ambiguous (Ranganathan 1998). The foundations of Hindu adherents’ philosophical considerations are based traditional Indian philosophy and are derived from classic Hindu literature (Ranganathan 1998). These concepts are in turn derived from classic Hindu literature (Ranganathan 1998).

The teachings of reincarnation, moksha/liberation, samsara, yogas/ashramas and karma are prevalent in Hindu spiritual philosophy (Zacharias 1951). The sources of these concepts which pertain to Hinduism spiritual philosophy include the sacred texts of Hinduism and the various philosophical principles of Hindu schools (Ranganathan 1998). It is through understanding these teachings that adherents come to the ultimate philosophical conclusion of Hinduism: that the purpose of life is to enter Moksha - an escape from the mundane and meaningless cycle of rebirth (Sivakumar 2014). Through the practice and understanding of these key Hinduism ideologies, adherents are able to partake in spirituality practices that align with the religious values of Hinduism (Sivakumar 2014).

Western World Religions

Western world religions – Christianity, Judaism and Islam– apply the principles of Western philosophy to their interpretation of spiritual philosophy (Zacharias 1951). Unlike Eastern philosophy, where there is a large reliance on religion for spiritual philosophy practices, Western philosophy does not solely rely on religion. Rather, Western philosophy explores the reaction to Western religion ideologies along with ideas of politics, science and mathematics (Burtt 1953).

Christianity

In the 1970s, Christian spiritual philosophy was transformed (Sherry 1981). This was the result of the charismatic movement of the 1960s (Sherry 1981). Christian spirituality is grounded by the philosophy; “the love of wisdom”, which, along with the core concept of Christianity: there is only one God who is an infinite, self-conscious spirit, is fundamental to adherent’s understanding and hence practice of spiritual philosophy (Chase 1879), (Sherry 1981). These philosophical outlooks are based on the fundamental principle outlined in the Gospel of John; “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” John1:1 (Chase 1879). Ultimately, Spiritual philosophy of Christian adherents is rooted in ‘faith’, influenced by those of ‘authority’ and must be regarded as ‘reasonable’ (Wood 2022).

Different Christian denominations hold different points of view and hence have differing restraints and acceptations of these fundamental concepts of spiritual philosophy (Wood 2022). However, adherents universally accept this doctrine in everyday practices in order to develop their understanding of spiritual philosophy in accordance with their faith (Sherry 1981).

Islam

Islamic spirituality requires adherent’s actions, behaviour and faith to align with the teachings and principles of Islam as outlined in the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad (Maham, Bhatti & Öztürk 2020). Islamic adherents who practice spirituality have a responsibility to uphold the relationship between themselves and Allah (Maham, Bhatti & Öztürk 2020).

The teachings of the Qur’an are foundational to the practicing of spiritual philosophy in the Islamic faith (Sohani 2017). As the Qur’an promotes a holistic way of life, it provides essential guidance for Islamic adherents on how to live intellectually, religiously, socially and spiritually in accordance with their faith (Sohani 2017). Hence, the Qur’an forms the basis of understanding of spiritual philosophy (Sohani 2017).

It is within the framework of Islamic tradition that adherents focus on modelling ethical behaviour pertaining to their spirituality (Maham, Bhatti & Öztürk 2020). It is with the highest importance that Islamic adherents must actively work to overcome gratuitous violence and ignorance (Maham, Bhatti & Öztürk 2020). Azim Nanji, an Islamic philosopher, highlights that it is imperative in the Islamic faith that “individuals become trustee through whom a moral and spiritual vision [of God] is fulfilled in personal life.” (Sohani 2017).

Ultimately, spiritual philosophy in the Islamic faith is guided by adherents’ belief and relationship with Allah (Maham, Bhatti & Öztürk 2020).

Judaism

Spiritual philosophy in Judaism is largely based on Natural Theology (Wenley 1897). According to the Jewish faith, the spiritual living of adherents is not produced by a single thought, but rather a series of formal and informal spiritual experiences (Wenley 1897). These experiences have greatly influence adherents’ philosophical outlook and subsequently their everyday practice of spirituality (Wenley 1897). In the Jewish faith, it is philosophy that is primarily responsible for spiritual awakening rather than the history of the religion (Wenley 1897). Hence, Jewish adherents have greater reliance on the sacred texts and teachings of the religion to inform their decisions in leading a spiritual life (Wenley 1897). However, the history of the faith is also fundamental (Wenley 1897).

Additionally, developing a strong understanding of the Hebrew term ‘ru’aḥ ha-qodesh’ (the divine voice in scripture) is an important part of the philosophical and spiritual traditions present in the Jewish faith (Danan 2009). In essence, ru’aḥ ha-qodesh is seen as a sub-prophetic experience, resulting in adherents being empowered by the spirit in order to articulate their spiritual philosophy in the Jewish tradition (Afterman 2018). This empowerment is the driving motivator for adherents to communicate their revelations to others (Afterman 2018).

Spiritual philosophy in a non-religious context

Non-religious spiritual philosophy encompasses spirituality that is not dictated by organised religion (Rousseau 2019). The understanding and practice of this side of spiritual philosophy is influenced through one’s ethical principles, thoughts and emotions (Kilicarslan Toruner et al. 2020). Hence, non-religious spirituality is more open-ended than religious spiritual philosophy, as one’s spirituality not being based primarily on religious teachings and texts (Hyland et al. 2010). A contemporary example is the spiritual philosophy outlined in The Book of Eden by poet and philosopher, Athol Williams.

The number of individuals practising non-religious spirituality has continued to rise in the modern world, where the practice of institutionalised religion is declining and more people choose to identify as spiritual but not religious (Altemeyer 2004). Non-religious spiritual philosophy emphasises connection, with adherents being able to interpret concepts of spirituality in a context that aligns with personal beliefs and values (Hyland et al. 2010). Whilst non-religious spiritual philosophy is more individualistic and does not necessarily follow an organised structure, there are still many non-religious spiritual philosophy outlooks that are followed by a community of people (Hyland et al. 2010).

Non-religious spiritual philosophy encompasses an array of practices, which have the purpose to serve the mind, body and soul (McPherson 2017, p. ). These practices vary from mindfulness, to charity work, to retreats, and occur with the explicit purpose to guide one’s decisions (McPherson 2017, p. ).

Spiritual philosophy in science and medicine

Florence Nightingale, pioneer of modern nursing

Spirituality, whether sourced from a religious or non-religious background, has the potential to help individuals cope and heal from disease and provide support to patients suffering from a terminal diagnosis (Büssing, Ostermann & Matthiessen 2005). It is believed that maintaining hope, meaning and a sense of purpose is vital for patients who undergo treatment for long-term illnesses to ensure individuals keep their identity and subsequently their personal sense of worth (Büssing, Ostermann & Matthiessen 2005).

An outlook on spiritual philosophy which was integral to modern medicine is that of Florence Nightingale, a nurse, philosopher, social reformer and statistician who came to prominence during the Crimean War (Selanders 2022). Her approach to patient care is now considered a fundamental component of the outlook patients and healthcare professionals have on illness and death (Macrae 1995). Nightingale’s interpretation of spiritual philosophy follows an evolution of spiritual philosophy for those from a non-religious background through the exploration of the relevance of science and mysticism to one’s spirituality (Macrae 1995). For Nightingale, the concept of spirituality, expands further than religion. She defined spirituality as the idea of a “presence higher than human” (Macrae 1995). It is a higher reality that drives one’s inner connection and subsequent sense of purpose and direction (Macrae 1995). Nightingale’s idea that spirituality is fundamental to human nature, holds relevance to science and has subsequently seen her philosophy being integrated into practice of modern nursing (Macrae 1995).

Nightingale incorporated spiritual philosophy into her practicing of nursing in order for herself, and nurses and patients alike, to understand and begin to accept illness and their potential devastating outcomes (Macrae 1995). Nightingale felt that a spiritual purpose was an intrinsic part of the healing process (Macrae 1995).

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